Seema Purushothaman

Regional impact assessment of land use scenarios in developing countries using the FoPIA approach: Findings from five case studies

The impact of land use changes on sustainable development is of increasing interest in many regions of the world. This study aimed to test the transferability of the Framework for Participatory Impact Assessment (FoPIA), which was originally developed in the European context, to developing countries, in which lack of data often prevents the use of data-driven impact assessment methods. The core aspect of FoPIA is the stakeholder-based assessment of alternative land use scenarios. Scenario impacts on regional sustainability are assessed by using a set of nine regional land use functions (LUFs), which equally cover the economic, social and environmental dimensions of sustainability. The cases analysed in this study include (1) the alternative spatial planning policies around the Merapi volcano and surrounding areas of Yogyakarta City, Indonesia; (2) the large-scale afforestation of agricultural areas to reduce soil erosion in Guyuan, China; (3) the expansion of soil and water conservation measures in the Oum Zessar watershed, Tunisia; (4) the agricultural intensification and the potential for organic agriculture in Bijapur, India; and (5) the land degradation and land conflicts resulting from land division and privatisation in Narok, Kenya. All five regions are characterised by population growth, partially combined with considerable economic development, environmental degradation problems and social conflicts. Implications of the regional scenario impacts as well as methodological aspects are discussed. Overall, FoPIA proved to be a useful tool for diagnosing regional human-environment interactions and for supporting the communication and social learning process among different stakeholder groups.

Participatory impact assessment of agricultural practices using the land use functions framework: case study from India

What do different stakeholders think of the changing trends in agricultural practices and related policies? We answer this and related questions with respect to Karnataka, an Indian state showing signs of agrarian distress. Using the participatory impact assessment (PIA) method involving farmers, researchers and voluntary workers, we assess the impact of recent policy-driven farming practices. The land use functions (LUFs) framework, which resembles the ecosystem services framework, was adapted in the PIA to address multidimensional sustainability in agricultural landscapes. During the PIAs, participants ranked LUFs in the order of their perceived importance and projected the impact of different practice–policy scenarios on chosen indicators corresponding to each LUF. Three farming scenarios, namely organic, conventional (chemically intensive) and mixed input practices were assessed for their projected impacts on selected indicators of each LUF. The LUF ranking reveals that while stakeholder priorities vary, they remain contrasting to the common policy focus of profit and productivity maximisation. Farmers value familys health and water access the most and financial services the least as functions of their land. Indicator scoring in the PIA revealed that participants rated organic practices as the most beneficial, conventional scenario as detrimental and the now prevailing mixed inputs scenario as having little impact.

Ecosystem services of native trees: experiences from two traditional agroforestry systems in Karnataka, Southern India

Agroforestry systems with native trees provide an interesting instance wherein provisional, regulatory, habitat, and ancillary ecosystem services are simultaneously exploited, but are least recognized. In the present study, the potential of native trees to optimize different ecosystem services is compared, versus introduced species in two traditional agroforestry systems in Karnataka state, Southern India: (a) coffee-based shaded perennial systems in Kodagu district of the tropical humid zone; and (b) dryland agro-ecosystems with Ficus trees in Mandya district of the semi-arid zone. Ecosystem services were assessed based on collected field data and farmers’ perceptions. Compared with exotic species, native trees provide more direct and indirect benefits, irrespective of differences in type, location, scope, and management of these systems. The role of native trees in supporting the overall sustainability of agroforestry systems is highlighted in the study. Moreover, it is emphasized that the long-term sustenance of traditional agroforestry systems depends on appreciation of the indirect and intangible benefits that are provided.

Assessing the impact of policy-driven agricultural practices in Karnataka, India

The classical approach of assessing sustainability with respect to its three underlying pillars, ecological, economic, and social, is adopted in this paper, with an added emphasis on estimating the simultaneous effects of each pillar on the other two. The paper assesses the impact of policy-driven changes in cultivation practices in five districts in the south-western Indian state of Karnataka. A comparative statics analysis using a simultaneous equations model is developed to capture the stability of each pillar into the future and their concurrent interactive impacts and trade-offs. Ecological and economic impacts of policies favoring organic farming are estimated to be uniformly significant and positive in the study districts. However, the impact on socio-cultural criteria is subjective to the eco-regional context. Cost savings, through producing organic inputs on-farm, maximizes synchrony among the three pillars vis-à-vis sourcing these inputs from the market. With more reliance on organic inputs, better prospects are estimated for small and rain-fed farms compared to large and irrigated farms.

Does litterfall from native trees support rainfed agriculture? Analysis of Ficus trees in agroforestry systems of southern dry agroclimatic zone of Karnataka, southern India

Trees of the genus Ficus, integral components of indigenous rainfed agro-ecosystems of the southern dry agro-climatic zone of Karnataka, southern India, have traditionally been associated with the ecological service of soil quality enhancement in addition to various direct use benefits. We assessed the soil enrichment service of Ficus benghalensis L. a common Ficus species in these agroforestry systems, by quantifying nutrient return via litter fall. Litterfall estimation and chemical analysis of litter showed that F. benghalensis trees produce 3,512 kg·ha−1 of litter annually which, on decomposition, can satisfy up to 76.70 % of N, 20.24% of P and 67.76% of K requirements of dryland crops annually per hectare. This can lead to an avoided cost of compost of US

Conservation and Coffee Production: Creating Synergies in Kodagu, Karnataka

36.46 ha−1·a−1 in dryland farming systems. The slow rate of decay of Ficus litter, as revealed in litter decomposition studies indicates its potential as ideal mulch for dryland soils. We discuss the complementarity between Ficus litterfall and cropping patterns in Mandya, and its implications for rainfed agricultural systems.

'Beyond Money Metrics: Alternative Approaches to Conceptualising and Assessing Ecosystem Services’

While ecotourism, as described in the previous chapter, has emerged as a commonly sought after intervention (with its limitations) to reconcile conservation and development in the forest peripheries, it is only one among an array of innovative reconciliatory tools available for such ecotone regions. In the context of the coffee-forest landscapes of Kodagu district, this chapter reveals how interventions encompassed under the umbrella of ‘compensation for ecosystem services’ remain unexplored due to lack of clarity about potential benefits and impacts. The district of Kodagu in the central peripheries of the Western Ghats is renowned as much for its biodiversity as it is for its coffee. In this chapter, the authors examine the interface between conservation and development from the perspective of small-scale coffee farmers. A primary survey combined with a cost-benefit analysis of best practices reveals a mismatch between the ecosystem services that farmers perceive to receive and what they actually receive, particularly in the case of pollination services. In this context, this chapter discusses potential incentivising mechanisms that can reconcile conservation and development in the Kodagu landscape.

Crop Yield Reduction in Ficus Agroforestry Systems of Karnataka, Southern India: Perceptions and Realities

The concept and valuation of ecosystem services have emerged as growing and dynamic areas of research over the past few years. The adoption of these ideas and methods into mainstream policy discussions and practice has occurred at a rapid pace. Conventionally, the valuation of ecosystem services has been synonymous with estimating the economic (monetary) value of these services. However, monetisation has limitations that need to be acknowledged before it is adopted in policies. In addition, the socio-political and institutional dimensions of ecosystem services are largely overlooked in the debate. Against this backdrop, the Indian Society for Ecological Economics (INSEE) has put together this special section to critically review the current thinking and practices surrounding ecosystem services and to present emerging alternative approaches.

Decomposition and Nutrient Release Dynamics of Ficus benghalensis L. Litter in Traditional Agroforestry Systems of Karnataka, Southern India

The effect of Ficus benghalensis L., a common agroforestry species in rainfed farmlands of the southern dry agroclimatic zone of Karnataka state, on the yield of finger millet crops was assessed by estimating grain and straw yields under the tree canopies (treatment) and outside the canopy (control). Soil fertility and light intensity were also measured with and without tree influence to explain the yield differences. Results revealed that F. benghalensis trees reduce finger millet grain yield by 20.48% and straw yield by 13.73% per hectare, possibly due to the reduction in light intensity up to 75% under canopies. However the yield difference was substantially lower compared to farmers’ perceptions on crop loss due to Ficus species in agroforestry systems. Implications of these results for rainfed Ficus agroforestry in Mandya are discussed further.

Economic rationale of traditional agroforestry systems: a case-study of Ficus trees in semiarid agro-ecosystems of Karnataka, southern India

Decomposition and nutrient release dynamics of leaf litter of Ficus benghalensis, a common agroforestry species in southern dry agroclimatic zone of Karnataka, were studied using the standard litter bag technique in surface and subsurface methods of application. Results revealed a marginally higher rate of decay in subsurface placement (22.5% of initial litter mass remaining after one year of decomposition) compared to surface treatment (28.3% of initial litter mass remaining). Litter quality (lignin content and lignin/N ratio) and climatic and soil conditions of the study site (monthly rainfall and soil moisture) were found to influence the rate of decomposition. Mineralisation of litter was found to be in the order K > N > P. The paper further discusses the implications of these results for rainfed farming in Mandya and emphasises the potential of F. benghalensis in reducing nutrient input costs for resource-poor dryland farmers.