Sergio Dall'Angelo

Molecular insights into bacteroid development during Rhizobium–legume symbiosis

Rhizobial soil bacteria can form a symbiosis with legumes in which the bacteria fix atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia that can be utilized by the host. The plant, in turn, supplies the rhizobia with a carbon source. After infecting the host cell, the bacteria differentiate into a distinct bacteroid form, which is able to fix nitrogen. The bacterial BacA protein is essential for bacteroid differentiation in legumes producing nodule-specific cysteine-rich peptides (NCRs), which induce the terminal differentiation of the bacteria into bacteroids. NCRs are antimicrobial peptides similar to mammalian defensins, which are important for the eukaryotic response to invading pathogens. The BacA protein is essential for rhizobia to survive the NCR peptide challenge. Similarities in the lifestyle of intracellular pathogenic bacteria suggest that host factors might also be important for inducing chronic infections associated with Brucella abortus and Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Moreover, rhizobial lipopolysaccharide is modified with an unusual fatty acid, which plays an important role in protecting the bacteria from environmental stresses. Mutants defective in the biosynthesis of this fatty acid display bacteroid development defects within the nodule. In this review, we will focus on these key components, which affect rhizobial bacteroid development and survival.

Role of Cysteine Residues and Disulfide Bonds in the Activity of a Legume Root Nodule-specific, Cysteine-rich Peptide

Background: Legume antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) mediate Sinorhizobium meliloti bacteroid differentiation. Results: Cysteine replacements and disulfide bond modifications influence the antimicrobial activity of a legume AMP and its ability to mediate S. meliloti bacteroid differentiation. Conclusion: Specific changes to legume AMPs influence their activity against S. meliloti. Significance: Understanding the relationship of AMPs in S. meliloti bacteroid differentiation is fundamental for nitrogen fixation and legume growth. The root nodules of certain legumes including Medicago truncatula produce >300 different nodule-specific cysteine-rich (NCR) peptides. Medicago NCR antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) mediate the differentiation of the bacterium, Sinorhizobium meliloti into a nitrogen-fixing bacteroid within the legume root nodules. In vitro, NCR AMPs such as NCR247 induced bacteroid features and exhibited antimicrobial activity against S. meliloti. The bacterial BacA protein is critical to prevent S. meliloti from being hypersensitive toward NCR AMPs. NCR AMPs are cationic and have conserved cysteine residues, which form disulfide (S–S) bridges. However, the natural configuration of NCR AMP S–S bridges and the role of these in the activity of the peptide are unknown. In this study, we found that either cysteine replacements or S–S bond modifications influenced the activity of NCR247 against S. meliloti. Specifically, either substitution of cysteines for serines, changing the S–S bridges from cysteines 1–2, 3–4 to 1–3, 2–4 or oxidation of NCR247 lowered its activity against S. meliloti. We also determined that BacA specifically protected S. meliloti against oxidized NCR247. Due to the large number of different NCRs synthesized by legume root nodules and the importance of bacterial BacA proteins for prolonged host infections, these findings have important implications for analyzing the function of these novel peptides and the protective role of BacA in the bacterial response toward these peptides.

Design, synthesis, in vitro characterization and preliminary imaging studies on fluorinated bile acid derivatives as PET tracers to study hepatic transporters.

With the aim of identifying a fluorinated bile acid derivative that could be used as [18F]-labeled Positron Emission Tomography (PET) tracer for imaging the in vivo functioning of liver transporter proteins, and particularly of OATP1B1, three fluorinated bile acid triazole derivatives of cholic, deoxycholic and lithocholic acid (CATD, DCATD and LCATD 4a-c, respectively) were synthesized and labeled with tritium. In vitro transport properties were studied with cell-based assays to identify the best substrate for OATP1B1. In addition, the lead compound, LCATD (4c), was tested as a substrate of other liver uptake transporters OATP1B3, NTCP and efflux transporter BSEP to evaluate its specificity of liver transport. The results suggest that 4c is a good substrate of OATP1B1 and NTCP, whereas it is a poor substrate of OATP1B3. The efflux transporter BSEP also appears to be involved in the excretion of 4c from hepatocytes. The automated radiosynthesis of [18F]-4c was accomplished in a multi-GBq scale and a pilot imaging experiment in a wild type rat was performed after i.v. administration to assess the biodistribution and clearance of the tracer. PET imaging revealed that radioactivity was primarily located in the liver (tmax=75s) and cleared exclusively through the bile, thus allowing to image the hepatobiliary excretion of bile acids in the animal model. These findings suggest that [18F]-LCATD 4c is a promising PET probe for the evaluation of hepatic transporters OATP1B1, NTCP and BSEP activity with potential for studying drug-drug interactions and drug-induced toxicity involving these transporters.

Last-step enzymatic [18F]-fluorination of cysteine-tethered RGD peptides using modified Barbas linkers

We report a last-step fluorinase-catalyzed [(18) F]-fluorination of a cysteine-containing RGD peptide. The peptide was attached through sulfur to a modified and more hydrophilic variant of the recently disclosed Barbas linker which was itself linked to a chloroadenosine moiety via a PEGylated chain. The fluorinase was able to use this construct as a substrate for a transhalogenation reaction to generate [(18) F]-radiolabeled RGD peptides, which retained high affinity to cancer-cell relevant αv β3 integrins.

High Affinity "Click" RGD Peptidomimetics as Radiolabeled Probes for Imaging αvβ3 Integrin

Nonpeptidic Arg‐Gly‐Asp (RGD)‐mimic ligands were designed and synthesized by click chemistry between an arginine–azide mimic and an aspartic acid–alkyne mimic. Some of these molecules combine excellent in vitro properties (high αvβ3 affinity, selectivity, drug‐like logD, high metabolic stability) with a variety of radiolabeling options (e.g., tritium and fluorine‐18, plus compatibility with radio‐iodination), not requiring the use of chelators or prosthetic groups. The binding mode of the resulting triazole RGD mimics to αvβ3 or αIIbβ3 receptors was investigated by molecular modeling simulations. Lead compound 12 was successfully radiofluorinated and used for in vivo positron emission tomography/computed tomography (PET/CT) studies in U87 tumor models, which showed only modest tumor uptake and retention, owing to rapid excretion. These results demonstrate that the novel click RGD mimics are excellent radiolabeled probes for in vitro and cell‐based studies on αvβ3 integrin, whereas further optimization of their pharmacokinetic and dynamic profiles is necessary for successful use in in vivo imaging.

Synthesis and hyperpolarisation of eNOS substrates for quantification of NO production by (1)H NMR spectroscopy

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Synthesis and Superpotent Anticancer Activity of Tubulysins Carrying Non-hydrolysable N-Substituents on Tubuvaline

Synthetic tubulysins 24 a-m, containing non-hydrolysable N-substituents on tubuvaline (Tuv), were obtained in high purity and good overall yields using a multistep synthesis. A key step was the formation of differently N-substituted Ile-Tuv fragments 10 by using an aza-Michael reaction of azido-Ile derivatives 8 with the α,β-unsaturated oxo-thiazole 5. A structure-activity relationship study using a panel of human tumour cell lines showed strong anti-proliferative activity for all compounds 24 a-m, with IC50 values in the sub-nanomolar range, which were distinctly lower than those of tubulysin A, vinorelbine and paclitaxel. Furthermore, 24 a-m were able to overcome cross-resistance to paclitaxel and vinorelbine in two tumour cell lines with acquired resistance to doxorubicin. Compounds 24 e and 24 g were selected as leads to evaluate their mechanism of action. In vitro assays showed that both 24 e and 24 g interfere with tubulin polymerization in a vinca alkaloid-like manner and prevent paclitaxel-induced assembly of tubulin polymers. Both compounds exerted antimitotic activity and induced apoptosis in cancer cells at very low concentrations. Compound 24 e also exhibited potent antitumor activity at well tolerated doses on in vivo models of diffuse malignant peritoneal mesothelioma, such as MESOII peritoneal mesothelioma xenografts, the growth of which was not significantly affected by vinorelbine. These results indicate that synthetic tubulysins 24 could be used as standalone chemotherapeutic agents in difficult-to-treat cancers.

Enzymatic Fluorination of Biotin and Tetrazine Conjugates for Pretargeting Approaches to Positron Emission Tomography Imaging

The use of radiolabelled antibodies and antibody‐derived recombinant constructs has shown promise for both imaging and therapeutic use. In this context, the biotin–avidin/streptavidin pairing, along with the inverse‐electron‐demand Diels–Alder (iEDDA) reaction, have found application in pretargeting approaches for positron emission tomography (PET). This study reports the fluorinase‐mediated transhalogenation [5′‐chloro‐5′‐deoxyadenosine (ClDA) substrates to 5′‐fluoro‐5′‐deoxyadenosine (FDA) products] of two antibody pretargeting tools, a FDA‐PEG‐tetrazine and a [18F]FDA‐PEG‐biotin, and each is assessed either for its compatibility towards iEDDA ligation to trans‐cyclooctene or for its affinity to avidin. A protocol to avoid radiolytically promoted oxidation of biotin during the synthesis of [18F]FDA‐PEG‐biotin was developed. The study adds to the repertoire of conjugates for use in fluorinase‐catalysed radiosynthesis for PET and shows that the fluorinase will accept a wide range of ClDA substrates tethered at C‐2 of the adenine ring with a PEGylated cargo. The method is exceptional because the nucleophilic reaction with [18F]fluoride takes place in water at neutral pH and at ambient temperature.