Sergio Rizzo

Early Skin Toxicity as a Predictive Factor for Tumor Control in Hepatocellular Carcinoma Patients Treated with Sorafenib

INTRODUCTION Sorafenib is an oral multikinase inhibitor that targets Raf kinase and receptor tyrosine kinases and has led to a longer median overall survival (OS) time and time to progression (TTP) in patients with advanced hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). This study was conducted to assess the link between the antitumor efficacy of sorafenib and its early cutaneous side effects in advanced HCC patients. MATERIALS AND METHODS All patients received 800 mg daily of sorafenib until progression or unacceptable toxicities. We retrospectively analyzed the incidence of rash and hand-foot skin reactions (HFSR) during the first month of treatment, comparing tumor control (partial response plus stable disease) and TTP. RESULTS Sixty-five HCC patients treated with sorafenib were included in this analysis: 47 (73.3%) received sorafenib after failure of some local treatment, whereas 18 (27.7%) received it as first-line treatment. Twenty-nine patients developed at least grade 1 skin toxicity (rash, 13; HFSR, 16). In patients who developed skin toxicity, the tumor control rate was 48.3%, versus 19.4% in patients without cutaneous side effects. The median TTP was 8.1 months in the group of patients with skin toxicity versus 4.0 months in those without skin toxicity. This difference was also statistically significant on multivariate analysis. A borderline statistically significant difference was also observed in terms of OS in patients with early skin toxicity. CONCLUSIONS Skin toxicity should be closely monitored in HCC patients treated with sorafenib in relation to its potential role as a surrogate marker of efficacy.

Male breast cancer.

Male breast cancer (MaleBC) is a rare disease, accounting for <1% of all male tumors. During the last few years, there has been an increase in the incidence of this disease, along with the increase in female breast cancer (FBC). Little is known about the etiology of MaleBC: hormonal, environmental and genetic factors have been reported to be involved in its pathogenesis. Major risk factors include clinical disorders carrying hormonal imbalances, radiation exposure and, in particular, a positive family history (FH) for BC, the latter suggestive of genetic susceptibility. Rare mutations in high-penetrance genes (BRCA1 and BRCA2) confer a high risk of BC development; low-penetrance gene mutations (i.e. CHEK-2) are more common but involve a lower risk increase. About 90% of all male breast tumors have proved to be invasive ductal carcinomas, expressing high levels of hormone receptors with evident therapeutic returns. The most common clinical sign of BC onset in men is a painless palpable retroareolar lump, which should be evaluated by means of mammography, ultrasonography and core biopsy or fine needle aspiration (FNA). To date, there are no published data from prospective randomized trials supporting a specific therapeutic approach in MaleBC. Tumor size together with the number of axillary nodes involved are the main prognostic factors and should guide the treatment choice. Locoregional approaches include surgery and radiotherapy (RT), depending upon the initial clinical presentation. When systemic treatment (adjuvant, neoadjuvant and metastatic) is delivered, the choice between hormonal and or chemotherapy (CT) should depend upon the clinical and biological features, according to the FBC management guidelines. However great caution is required because of high rates of age-related comorbidities.

Breast cancer genome-wide association studies: there is strength in numbers

Breast cancer (BC) is a heterogeneous disease that exhibits familial aggregation. Family linkage studies have identified high-penetrance genes, BRCA1, BRCA2, PTEN and TP53, that are responsible for inherited BC syndromes. Moreover, a combination of family-based and population-based approaches indicated that genes involved in DNA repair, such as CHEK2, ATM, BRIP and PALB2, are associated with moderate risk. Therefore, all of these known genes account for only 25% of the familial aggregation cases. Recently, genome wide association studies (GWAS) in BC revealed single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in five novel genes associated to susceptibility: TNRC9, FGFR2, MAP3K1, H19 and lymphocyte-specific protein 1 (LSP1). The most strongly associated SNP was in intron 2 of the FGFR2 gene that is amplified and overexpressed in 5–10% of BC. rs3803662 of TNRC9 gene has been shown to be the SNP with the strongest association with BC, in particular, this polymorphism seems to be correlated with bone metastases and estrogen receptor positivity. Relevant data indicate that SNP rs889312 in MAP3K1 is correlated with BC susceptibility only in BRCA2 mutation carriers, but is not associated with an increased risk in BRCA1 carriers. Finally, different SNPs in LSP1 and H19 and in minor genes probably were associated with BC risk. New susceptibility allelic variants associated with BC risk were recently discovered including potential causative genes involved in regulation of cell cycle, apoptosis, metabolism and mitochondrial functions. In conclusion, the identification of disease susceptibility loci may lead to a better understanding of the biological mechanism for BC to improve prevention, early detection and treatment.

Hereditary ovarian cancer

At least 10% of ovarian tumors are hereditary and associated with highly penetrant, autosomal, dominant genetic predisposition. Three clinical manifestations of hereditary ovarian cancer have been identified: site-specific ovarian cancer, hereditary breast and/or ovarian cancer (HBOC) and hereditary non-polyposis colorectal cancer (HNPCC) syndromes. BRCA germline mutations account for more than 90% of all hereditary epithelial ovarian tumors whereas most of the remaining 10% are caused by MLH1 and MSH2 mutations, which are susceptibility genes of HNPCC. Genetic testing is available for each of the three hereditary syndromes above mentioned. The recommendations for OC surveillance in high-risk women having a strong family history or BRCA mutation carriers include transvaginal pelvic ultrasound with color Doppler and serum CA125 every 6 months. Bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy appears to be effective to reduce the risk of ovarian cancer in BRCA mutation carriers. Hysterosalpingo-oophorectomy should be considered in HNPCC women who undergo surgery for colorectal carcinoma.

PD-L1 expression as predictive biomarker in patients with NSCLC: a pooled analysis.

Background Clinical trials of immune checkpoints modulators, including both programmed cell death-1 (PD-1) and programmed cell death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) inhibitors, have recently shown promising activity and tolerable toxicity in pre-treated NSCLC patients. However the predictive role of PD-L1 expression is still controversial. This pooled analysis aims to clarify the association of clinical objective responses to anti PD-1/PD-L1 monoclonal antibodies (MoAbs) and tumor PD-L1 expression in pre-treated NSCLC patients. Methods Data from published studies, that evaluated efficacy and safety of PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitors in pre-treated NSCLC patients, stratified by tumor PD-L1 expression status (immunohistochemistry, cut-off point 1%), were collected by searching in PubMed, Cochrane Library, American Society of Clinical Oncology, European Society of Medical Oncology and World Conference of Lung Cancer, meeting proceedings. Pooled Odds ratio (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs) were calculated for the Overall Response Rate (ORR) (as evaluated by Response Evaluation Criteria in Solid Tumors, version 1.1), according to PD-L1 expression status. Results A total of seven studies, with 914 patients, were eligible. Pooled analysis showed that patients with PD-L1 positive tumors (PD-L1 tumor cell staining ≥1%), had a significantly higher ORR, compared to patients with PD-L1 negative tumors (OR: 2.44; 95% CIs: 1.61-3.68). Conclusions PD-L1 tumor over-expression seems to be associated with higher clinical activity of anti PD-1/PD-L1 MoAbs, in pre-treated NSCLC patients, suggesting a potential role of PD-L1 expression, IHC cut-off point 1%, as predictive biomarker for the selection of patients to treat with immune-checkpoint inhibitors.

Relapsing or refractory idiopathic thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura-hemolytic uremic syndrome: the role of rituximab

Idiopathic thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura–hemolytic uremic syndrome (TTP‐HUS) is a rare disease responsive to treatment with plasma exchange (PE) but with a high percentage of relapse or refractory patients. A severe deficiency of ADAMTS‐13 (<5% of normal activity), congenital or caused by an autoantibody, may be specific for TTP and it has been proposed that severe ADAMTS‐13 deficiency now defines TTP. B cells play a key role in both the development and the perpetuation of autoimmunity, suggesting that B‐cell depletion could be a valuable treatment approach for patients with idiopathic TTP‐HUS. This review of the literature focuses on the role of rituximab, a chimeric monoclonal antibody directed against CD20 antigen expressed by B lymphocytes, in patients with relapsing or refractory TTP‐HUS with or without ADAMTS‐13 deficiency, suggesting that rituximab may produce clinical remission in a significant proportion of patients. Rituximab therapy reduces plasma requirement and avoids complications related to salvage‐immunosuppressive therapy. In conclusion, rituximab provides an effective, well‐tolerated, and safe treatment option for patients with idiopathic TTP‐HUS, thus giving an alternative approach to the current treatment based on PE.

Co-expression of CD133+/CD44+ in human colon cancer and liver metastasis

Although relatively good therapeutic results are achieved in non‐advanced cancer, the prognosis of the advanced colon cancer still remains poor, dependent on local or distant recurrence of the disease. One of the factors responsible for recurrence is supposed to be cancer stem cells (CSCs) or tumor‐initiating cells, which are a population of cancer cells with ability to perpetuate themselves through self‐renewal and to generate differentiated cells, thought to be responsible for tumor recurrence. This study globally approach the possible role of tissue‐derived stem cells in the initiation of colon cancer and its metastatic process in the liver. Fresh surgical specimens from colon cancer, non‐tumor tissue and liver metastasis were obtained directly from the operating room, examined, and immediately processed. CSCs were selected under serum‐free conditions and characterized by CD44 and CD133 expression levels. CD133+/CD44+ cell populations were then investigated in paraffin‐embedded tissues and circulating tumor cells isolated from peripheral blood of the same group of colon cancer patients. Our data demonstrate that metastatic properties of cell populations from blood and liver metastasis, differently from primitive tumors, seem to be strictly related to the phenotype CD133 positive and CD44 positive. J. Cell. Physiol. 228: 408–415, 2013.

The Long and Winding Road to Useful Predictive Factors for Anti-EGFR Therapy in Metastatic Colorectal Carcinoma: The KRAS/BRAF Pathway

Monoclonal antibodies targeting the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) have improved outcomes for patients with metastatic colorectal carcinoma. Among patients not carrying activating mutations in the KRAS gene, only a limited number will experience tumor response to these therapeutic agents. The role of BRAF mutations in determining resistance to this treatment is emerging through preclinical and clinical studies. Standardization and validation of laboratory mutation analysis is needed to allow an optimal use of anti-EGFR therapies in the management of colorectal carcinoma. Clinical single-arm and randomized studies were conducted both in first-line and refractory settings to evaluate the correlation of KRAS mutational status and efficacy of cetuximab and panitumumab. The main trials on first-line regiments are CRYSTAL, which is looking at FOLFIRI (folinic acid, fluorouracil, irinotecan) + cetuximab, and OPUS, which is evaluating FOLFOX (folinic acid, fluorouracil, oxaliplatin) + cetuximab. The results of these trials have induced the European Medicines Agency to apply restrictions to its approval of cetuximab and panitumumab for use in metastatic colorectal cancer patients with wild-type KRAS tumors. However, the absence of KRAS mutations is not sufficient to assure clinical response to cetuximab and panitumumab. We need to discover further molecular biomarkers of impairment in this or other signaling pathways to identify responders more specifically. Preclinical rationale is available for combined therapies, which simultaneously target EGFR and the RAS/RAF/MAPK signaling pathways for metastatic colorectal cancer.

Sex Steroids, Carcinogenesis, and Cancer Progression

Abstract: The relationship between sex steroids and cancer has been studied for more than a century. Using an original intact cell analysis, we investigated sex steroid metabolism in a panel of human cancer cell lines, either hormone responsive or unresponsive, originating from human breast, endometrium, and prostate. We found that highly divergent patterns of steroid metabolism exist and that the catalytic preference (predominantly reductive or oxidative) is strictly associated with the steroid receptor status of cells. We explored intratissue concentrations and profiles of estrogens in a set of human breast tumors as compared to normal mammary tissues, also in relation to their estrogen receptor status. In particular, we showed that, with hydroxyestrogens representing the majority of all tissue estrogens, concentrations of individual metabolites, as well as their ratios, significantly differ when comparing normal tissue with cancer tissues or when they are related to the overall survival of cancer patients.

Rituximab for managing relapsing or refractory patients with idiopathic thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura--haemolytic uraemic syndrome.

Thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura (TTP) is a rare disorder characterized by thrombocytopenia, microangiopathic haemolytic anaemia, neurological and renal abnormalities and fever1, with a mortality rate, in the absence of treatment, of almost 90%. Since such criteria do not distinguish TTP from haemolytic uraemic syndrome (HUS), the comprehensive term TTP-HUS is more approriate2. The standard therapy is urgent plasma exchange (PE)1, which reduces mortality to 10% or less3–9. Because of its dramatic effect on short and long-term outcome, it is now accepted that PE can be begun, in the absence of an alternative diagnosis, even when not all of the above criteria are fulfilled3,4,6,9,10. The evident advantage of early initiation of therapy along with the decreased diagnostic threshold has resulted in a 7-fold increase of patients treated with PE for TTP-HUS from 1981 to 199711. The symptoms of TTP are related to the presence of von Willebrand factor (VWF)-rich platelet thrombi in arterioles and capillaries. VWF is a multimeric plasma glycoprotein crucial for both platelet adhesion and aggregation, especially at the high shear rates present in the microvasculature. The size of VWF multimers is physiologically regulated in vivo by a specific metalloprotease, ADAMTS-13 (a disintegrin-like and metalloprotease with thrombospondin type 1 repeats)12. A severe deficiency of ADAMTS-13 (< 5% of normal activity) may be specific for TTP13 and it has been proposed that severe ADAMTS-13 deficiency now defines TTP14,15. Because ADAMTS-13 deficiency, whether idiopathic or caused by an autoantibody, provides a possible explanation for the effectiveness of PE (removal of the autoantibody by apheresis; supply of ADAMTS-13 by plasma replacement), it has been suggested that the levels of this metalloprotease can be used to guide treatment decisions14,16–19. At present it is not possible to establish the sensitivity of ADAMTS-13 deficiency for identifying patients who may respond to PE. In seven reports, 45% to 100% of patients with TTP were reported to have severe deficiency of ADAMTS-13 activity19–25 while such a high rate has not been described in those with HUS19,20,23. However, the interpretation of these studies is limited by the absence of explicit criteria for distinguishing patients with TTP from patients with HUS. PE has been proven effective even in patients without deficiency of ADAMTS-13 activity, which makes it difficult to understand how PE is benificial2. In conclusion, the role of ADAMTS-13 activity in the diagnosis and treatment decisions in patients with TTP or HUS remains unknown. Therapy with PE should be implemented in all patients with TTP-HUS and continued until the resolution of signs and/or symptoms and normalisation of laboratory tests; this can require long-term therapy. PE has some other disadvantages: first of all, it is not a risk-free procedure since a substantial number of major complications have been reported26,27. Furthermore, about 10% to 20% of TTP-HUS patients do not respond or have only an incomplete response2. Various different types of immunosuppressive treatment have been proposed for refractory patients14,29,30,32, including steroids and immunosuppressive or immune-modulating agents; however, the lack of robust data does not allow proper suggestion of such agents in the setting of acute refractory or chronic relapsing TTP28,32. Splenectomy has been proposed for patients with refractory or relapsing TTP, with reported remission rates of 50–100%29, but relapses have occurred in a considerable proportion of patients, most of them with severe ADAMTS-13 deficiency2,29,33,35. It has recently been shown that splenectomy can cause the disappearance of antibodies, normalisation of ADAMTS-13 activity and clinical remission in cases of refractory/relapsing TTP associated with anti-ADAMTS-13 autoantibodies. Other authors reported a low frequency of relapses in a large cohort of patients who underwent splenectomy30. Rituximab, a chimaeric monoclonal antibody directed against the CD20 antigen present on B lymphocytes, is used in lymphoma patients and those with rheumatoid arthritis33. Its action relies on clearance of the B lymphocytes responsible for antibody production by complement-dependent cytotoxicity, antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity or directly by inducing apoptosis31,33. The understanding that ADAMTS-13 deficiency could be antibody-mediated first provided the rationale for the use of rituximab in TTP-HUS12, but its reported effectiveness even in TTP-HUS patients without antibody-mediated ADAMTS-13 deficiency as well as in cases of refractory/relapsing cases makes this monoclonal antibody a very attractive therapeutic agent33–35. The data suggest that the drug may not simply decrease ADAMTS-13 autoantibody production by depleting B cells, but that it may have additional mechanisms of action. Kameda et al.34 suggested that B-cell depletion by rituximab reduces excessive cytokine production in patients with secondary TTP, thus containing the level of VWF multimers within the normal range. At present, only data from case series have been published and many questions remain open regarding the target population, timing of initiation, duration of treatment and concomitant PE34–49. Here we describe four patients with refractory/relapsing idiopathic TTP-HUS who were successfully treated with rituximab (Table I). Table I Patients’ characteristics