Seymore Simon

Resource allocation during the rereading of scientific texts

Two experiments examined how cognitive resources are allocated to comprehension processes across two readings of the same scientific texts. In Experiment 1, readers read and later reread texts describing scientific topics. The results indicated that across readings, readers decreased resources allocated to proposition assembly, increased resources allocated to text-level integration, and expended a similar amount of resources to lexical access. Subjects who reread the texts after a week delay showed a similar pattern, except that they did not show the increase for text-level integration. Experiment 2 revealed a similar pattern of results with a moving window procedure, except that there was a significant decrease in resources allocated to lexical access across exposures. This experiment also indicated that the rereading speedup was greatest at sentence boundaries, suggesting that the prior exposure enabled readers to immediately process each word. Overall, the results are consistent with the claim that readers allocate proportionally more available resources to text-level integration during rereading because proposition assembly, which enables text-level integration, can be completed with fewer resources.

The Simulated Class as a Method for Studying Teacher Decision Making.

In four experiments, college students acting as teachers allocated group and individual instructional time to a simulated class of six students whose performances followed Thurstones 1930 learning function. In each experiment, teachers adopted a policy aimed at balancing the achievement means and variances, allocating about 50% of the time to group instruction and the remainder to individual instruction inversely by ability. This policy was fairly robust with respect to variables such as instructional goals (Experiment 1), cumulative dollar feedback about the cost of instruction (Experiment 2), class composition produced by allowing the teacher to remove a student from class prior to an instructional session (Experiment 3), and whether certified classroom teachers or noncertified college students served as subjects (Experiment 4). Along with comparable findings in natural classrooms and extended results with other versions of the simulated class, the current research suggests that simulations can provide teachers with a useful tool for improving instructional decision making.

SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT: INFLUENCE OF INTER-ITEM ASSOCIATIVE STRENGTH UPON IMMEDIATE FREE RECALL IN CHILDREN

Indices of inter-item associative strength were obtained on the basis of word association norms for 15 free recall lists consisting of 12 items each. Recall performance on these lists was found to be reliably related to the index of inter-item associative strength for 4th, 5th, and 6th grade children. Consistent with results reported by Deese (1959), it was found that, for all Ss, inter-item associative strength was positively related to the number of words recalled, negatively related to the number of extra-list intrusions, and positively related to the commonality of intrusions. In agreement with the experimental hypothesis, most of the coefficients reported by Deese for college Ss were higher than those obtained for grade school Ss.

Studies in Observational Paired-Associate Learning: Informational, Social, and Individual Difference Variables.

Abstract Four experiments examined the relative importance of informational (proportion of correct responses and kinds of errors emitted by a model), social (model competency, sex of model, video vs. audio taped model), and individual difference (sex of subject, grade) variables in observational paired-associate learning. In Experiments I–III, vicarious subjects received cycles of study-model-test trials, while direct subjects were given the same sequences with intervening test or stimulus familiarization trials. In Experiment IV, vicarious subjects received cycles of study-test-model-test trials, while direct subjects received the cycles with a test trial replacing the model trial. No confirmation was provided on test and model trials. Whereas the effects attributable to social and individual difference variables were generally negligible, mere accuracy of the models responses repeatedly covaried with performance on the last test trial of each cycle. Conditional analyses established that (1) vicarious facilitation is comparable across cycles and localized in items responded to incorrectly on immediately preceding test trials, and (2) observers learn fewer incorrect than correct model responses. Vicarious groups performed at reliably higher levels than direct subjects on model correct but not incorrect items. The results strongly suggest a close correspondence between direct and vicarious verbal learning principles and mechanisms.

Verbal paired-associate transfer as a function of practice and paradigm shift

Two studies investigated the effects of practice and paradigm shift on three transfer paradigms: A-B’, A-B; A-C, A-B; and C-D, A-B. Ss were administered the same paradigm for three successive sets of paired associates after which they were either continued with the same paradigm for a fourth set or shifted to a different paradigm. Performance under the A-B’ paradigm tended to diverge from the other paradigms as a function of sets. Paradigm shift did not affect performance beyond that expected on the basis of the nature of the paradigm shifted to.

Vicarious learning of common and uncommon associations in children

The vicarious acquisition of common and uncommon verbal associations was studied in 347 children. Results indicated that a disposition for uncommon responding could be learned vicariously and was dependent solely on the model’s performance; instructions to the model, as well as the presence or absence of vicarious reinforcement, were insignificant variables. No systematic relationships were found between imitative behavior and scores derived from 3 children’s personality scales.

Direct vs. vicarious paired-associate learning-to-learn in children

In three experiments pairs of Ss (sixth, seventh, and eighth graders in Exps. I and II; third and fourth graders in Exp. III) learned four consecutive sets of one of three PA transfer paradigms (A-B′, C-D, A-D), yoked observers alternately listening to the List-1 performances of models and learning the transfer lists directly. On Set 4, Ss either continued learning on the same paradigm or were switched to a different paradigm. Results for model Ss closely replicated earlier findings with adults, overall performance on List 1 increasing over sets and transfer on A-B′ showing marked increments from Set 1 to Set 2. Observers showed poorer transfer than models across paradigms, although the data suggest the presence of a complex Paradigm × Conditions of Learning × Age interaction. For both models and observers there was no Training Paradigm × 4th-Set Test Paradigm interaction, performance on Set 4 being dependent solely on the nature of the test paradigm. In Exp. III, exposure to different models over successive sets yielded consonant results with single model exposure.

Associative originality training in children

The effects of 1-, 3-, and 5-days of associative originality training on three criterion tasks was studied in 336 4th, 5th, and 6th grade children. Results indicated that while 3- and 5-days of training facilitated uncommon word association responding, no reliable facilitation of unusual uses and letter tasks was obtained. Scores on three personality scales were independent of all associative measures.

Supplementary Report: Backward Learning and Stimulus Familiarization Inhibition in Children

The present experiment was concerned, in part, with assessing the generality of findings obtained by Simon and Wood (1964) concerning the relative facilitation and inhibitory effects of prior PA stimulus familiarization on subsequent PA learning. Ss were 52 6th and 7th grade children. Results essentially supported those previously obtained with college students. The large attrition rate of Ss failing to reach familiarization list criterion suggests the fairly selected nature of the population of children to which these results can be generalized.

Effects of retention interval activity on short-term memory in retardates

Seventy retarded Ss showed reductions in the short-term retention of single verbal items to 73% correct recall in 16 sec. under conditions where words different from the stimulus word filled the retention interval. Under retention interval conditions of no instructed activity, instructed rehearsal, and music listening, negligible declines in recall were observed.