Shah Ebrahim

Prospective study of serum total homocysteine concentration and risk of stroke in middle-aged British men

Moderate hyperhomocysteinaemia is common in the general population and has been linked with cardiovascular disease. However, there are no data from prospective, population-based studies. We examined the association between serum total homocysteine (tHcy) concentration and stroke in a nested case-control study within the British Regional Heart Study cohort. Between 1978 and 1980 serum was saved from 5661 men, aged 40-59 years, randomly selected from the population of one general practice in each of 18 towns in the UK. During follow-up to December, 1991, there were 141 incident cases of stroke among men with no history of stroke at screening. Serum tHcy was measured in 107 cases and 118 control men (matched for age-group and town, without a history of stroke at screening, who did not develop a stroke or myocardial infarction during follow-up). tHcy concentrations were significantly higher in cases than controls (geometric mean 13.7 [95% CI 12.7-14.8] vs 11.9 [11.3-12.6] mumol/L; p = 0.004). There was a graded increase in the relative risk of stroke in the second, third, and fourth quarters of the tHcy distribution (odds ratios 1.3, 1.9, 2.8; trend p = 0.005) relative to the first. Adjustment for age-group, town, social class, body-mass index, hypertensive status, cigarette smoking, forced expiratory volume, packed-cell volume, alcohol intake, diabetes, high-density-lipoprotein cholesterol, and serum creatinine did not attenuate the association. These findings suggest that tHcy is a strong and independent risk factor for stroke.

Illness in the context of older age: the case of stroke.

Stroke is popularly conceived of as an illness which shatters lives. The discourse of shattered lives, articulated more generally within the sociological literature on chronic illness as ‘biographical disruption’, is examined with reference to the experience of a sample of predominantly elderly, working class people living in the East End of London. We begin by exploring the interviewees’ responses to the stroke as something which was ‘not that bad’, before going on to examine the place of the stroke within the context of these peoples’ lives. Particular attention is paid to the ways in which age may mediate illness experience.

A patient-centred study of the consequences of stroke

Objective: To explore subjective accounts of the consequences of stroke. Design: Qualitative methods using depth interviews. Participants and setting: Forty people sampled ten months post stroke from a hospital stroke register which was established in two adjacent health districts in North Thames Regional Health Authority. Results: Interviewees reported a number of ways in which the stroke had affected their daily lives, including difficulty with leaving the house, doing the housework, pursuing former leisure activities, inability to walk in the way they wanted, problems with communicating, washing, bathing and dressing, and with confusion and deteriorating memory. In all these areas people described the loss of social contact that accompanied these changes, and the loss of valued roles which had been embedded in the everyday functions they had previously performed. In general, people over the age of 70 were more seriously affected. Conclusion: The type of changes which people reported would not easily have been captured using standardized outcome measures, pointing to the value of qualitative methods in providing subjective accounts. In terms of clinical practice, there is a need to reduce peoples isolation after stroke by providing home visits after discharge, particularly to those living alone, and also by reducing disability through rehabilitation and by tackling the environmental obstacles which can imprison people in their homes. The findings suggest that many people with stroke would benefit from being able to talk about the changes which have occurred. Imaginative proposals are needed to develop ways to help replace the loss of activities, social contacts and social roles, particularly among older people with stroke.

Validity of a self-reported history of doctor-diagnosed angina.

The objective of this study was to assess the validity of a self-reported history of doctor-diagnosed angina in population-based studies in men. Subjects were 5789 men from the British Regional Heart Study who reported being without an angina diagnosis at entry (1978-1980) and were alive at the end of 1992, aged 52 to 75 years. In 1992, subjects were asked in a self-administered questionnaire if they recalled ever having had a doctor diagnosis of angina. Self-report of diagnosed angina was compared with general practice (GP) record of angina obtained from reviews of medical records from study entry to the end of 1992. Men were followed for a further 3 years from 1992 for major ischemic heart disease events. The prevalence of diagnosed angina in 1992 was 10.1% according to self-reported history and 8.9% according to GP record review. There was substantial agreement between the two sources of information: 80% of men with a GP record of angina reported their diagnosis, and 70% of men who reported an angina diagnosis had confirmation of this from the record review. When all ischemic heart disease (angina or myocardial infarction) was considered, agreement was higher. Genuine angina was likely in many of the 177 men who had self-reported angina not confirmed by the GP record review: 78 had an ischemic heart disease history (myocardial infarction or coronary revascularization) identified by the review, and 31 had a GP record of angina after 1992. Angina symptoms, nitrate use, cardiological investigation, and surgical intervention for angina compared between agreement groups showed a very consistent pattern. All these indicators of angina were most common in men with both self-report and GP record of angina, least common in men with neither self-report nor GP record of angina, but had a substantially higher prevalence in men with self-reported angina only than in those with GP-recorded angina only. After 3 years follow-up from 1992, 9.5% of men with both self-report and GP record of angina, and 11.3% of men with self-reported angina only had experienced a new major ischemic heart disease event; compared to 5.7% of men with a GP record of angina only and 2.7% of those without angina by either criteria. This pattern of risk remained similar after adjustment for age and previous myocardial infarction. These results suggest that self-reported history of a doctor diagnosis of angina is a valid measure of diagnosed angina in population-based studies in men.

Clinical and public health perspectives and applications of health-related quality of life measurement

Health-related quality of life (HRQL) measures have been developed from the utilitarian ethical perspective of public health medicine which may be contrasted with individual-centered indicators; these emphasise the unique experience of a patient. The impairment-disability-handicap framework provides a more complete description of disease consequences and health outcomes than a generic HRQL indicator. The assessment of reliability and validity of HRQL indicators is often carried out inappropriately: population repeatability is measured when an indicator will be used to examine changes in individuals; between observer variation may be large compared with variation between populations. Content and construct validity are usually measured but the more important predictive validity is neglected. Effect sizes of HRQL indicators are likely to be inflated by use of between subject estimates of variance but the more appropriate within subject variance is seldom reported. HRQL indicators are of very limited value for many clinical and public health tasks: monitoring health of individuals and populations; evaluating the effects of health and social policy; allocating resources; evaluating the effects of treatment. Alternative methods of assessment derived from the impairment-disability-handicap conceptual framework are preferable.

The Effect of Zinc and Vitamin A Supplementation on Immune Response in an Older Population

OBJECTIVE: To determine if either supplemental vitamin A, zinc, or both increases cell‐mediated immune response in an older population.

Patients' satisfaction with stroke services

Patient satisfaction with stroke services is a key aspect of the evaluation of the quality of services but there are no adequate means of assessing satisfaction in this area. A questionnaire derived from in-depth interviews was piloted on two samples. The resulting questionnaire consisted of two sections, one on inpatient services (Hospsat) and the other on services in the community (Homesat). It was sent to 219 patients, who had had a stroke six months previously, along with postal versions of the Barthel ADL index, the Nottingham Extended ADL Scale, the Nottingham Health Profile, the short form of the Geriatric Depression Scale and the Faces Scale. The response rate for the questionnaires was 87%. Test-retest reliability and tests of internal consistency of the satisfaction scales were carried out on a subsample of this population. Convergent and discriminant validity were explored by examining correlations with the above measures. The satisfaction questionnaire had construct validity with significant correla tions between the Barthel ADL Index (r = 0.39), the Nottingham Extended ADL Scale (r= 0.38) and the physical mobility subsection of the Nottingham Health Profile (r= -0.36). Internal consistency was high for both sections (Cronbachs Alpha: Hospsat 0.86; Homesat 0.77). Test-retest reliability was fair; the mean difference for total scores was 0.59 (SD = 2.4) for Hospsat, and 0.32 (SD = 2.1) for Homesat. A high level of dissatisfaction was uncovered. Just under half (48%) of people were dissatisfied with some aspect of the care they received in hospital and over half (53%) were dissatisfied with some aspect of the services they received in the community. The highest rate (54%) of dissatisfaction was with the amount of therapy received. Good patient satisfaction measures are useful since they complement objective outcome measures and may highlight areas in need of evaluation and improvement.

A postal version of the Barthel Index

The Barthel Index is the best known and most popular activities of daily living (ADL) scale. Many studies have confirmed its validity and it has been validated for many different methods of administration. These include direct observation, interview of patient carer or nurse and telephone. The aim of this study was to devise and test the reliability of a self-completed postal version of the Barthel Index for use in surveys and outcome studies. The items were changed into multiple choice questions, taking into account the published guidelines and knowledge of common areas of confusion when administering the Barthel by interview. The test retest reliability over two weeks of the resulting questionnaire was evaluated using a consecutive series of 21 patients from a stroke register, who had responded without prompting to a postal survey six months after stroke. All the items had κ statistics indicating at least moderate reliability, the toilet and mobility items being the worst. The mean difference in total scores was -0.5 out of 20, standard deviation 2.1. The 95% limits of agreement were -4.6 to 3.6, corresponding to a change in dependence of up to two ADL items. This study demonstrates that the postal self-report questionnaire version of the Barthel is reliable and practical. Further studies are needed to establish its validity in comparison with interview administration.

Stroke patients' views on their admission to hospital

Abstract Objective: To explore which components of care were valued by patients admittedto hospital following a stroke. Design: Qualitative study using in depth interviews 10 months after the stroke. Setting: Two adjacent districts in North Thames Regional Health Authority. Subjects: 82 survivors of stroke taken consecutively from a stroke register, 40of whom agreed to be interviewed. Results: Patients reported that during the acute stage of the stroke they wanted to put their faith in experienced and trusted experts who would help them make sense of the event, take all the actions necessary to ensure survival, and provide comfort and human warmth during the crisis. In addition to being reassured by the clinical tests and practical nursing help they received, patients valued feeling cared about by the staff. In most cases patients reported that their needs were met; however, the institutional natureof the hospital sometimes obstructed the fulfilment of their needs. Conclusion: Patients have important psychosocial needs during the acute stage of the stroke, which are often met by hospital admission. Patients gained benefits from their admission over and above those measurable in terms of morbidity or function. They used a combination of criteria to evaluate their care, focusing on the process as well as the outcome of care. Researchers and clinicians should do likewise.

Respiratory Function and Risk of Stroke

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSEnThis report examines the relationship between lung function and risk of major stroke events (fatal and nonfatal).nnnMETHODSnWe completed a prospective study of 7735 men aged 40 to 59 years at screening selected at random from one general practice in each of 24 British towns.nnnRESULTSnDuring the mean follow-up period of 14.8 years, there were 277 major stroke events in the 7650 men with data on forced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV1). After exclusion of 499 men with definite myocardial infarction, stroke, or atrial fibrillation at screening, 7151 men experienced 239 major stroke events. Lower levels of FEV1 were associated with a significant increase in risk of stroke even after adjustment for age, smoking, social class, physical activity, alcohol intake, systolic blood pressure, antihypertensive treatment, diabetes, and preexisting ischemic heart disease. Relative risk in the low third (< 3.10 L) versus high third (> 3.65 L) was 1.4 (95% confidence interval, 1.0 to 2.0). The inverse association between FEV1 and stroke was only apparent in older men, current nonsmokers, hypertensive men, and men with preexisting ischemic heart disease. Lower FEV1 was associated with higher rates of stroke in hypertensive men irrespective of smoking status. Inclusion of FEV1 in a risk score for stroke provided only a small increase in the absolute risk or the yield of cases in the top fifth of the score distribution during the follow-up period.nnnCONCLUSIONSnLower levels of FEV1 are associated with an increased risk of stroke in those already at high risk, eg, those with ischemic heart disease or hypertension. However, the association is not strong enough to warrant the use of FEV1 in making clinical decisions regarding the treatment of hypertension as it relates to the prevention of stroke.