Shahzad Zafar Iqbal

Assessment of aflatoxins, ochratoxin A and zearalenone in breakfast cereals

Aflatoxins (AFs), ochratoxin A (OTA) and zearalenone (ZEN) were analysed in 237 breakfast cereal samples collected from central areas of Punjab, Pakistan. According to the results, 41% of the samples were found contaminated with AFs, out of which 16% and 8% samples were found to be above the European Union (EU) maximum content for AFB1 and total AFs, respectively. About 48% samples were found contaminated with OTA and 30% samples were found to be above the EU maximum content. The results have shown that 53% samples of breakfast cereals were found contaminated with ZEN and 8% samples were found to be above the permissible limit of EU. The highest mean level of AFB1 and total AFs were found in semolina i.e. 3.60 and 4.55 μg/kg, respectively. Similarly, semolina was the highest contaminated breakfast cereal for OTA (3.90 μg/kg), while cornflakes (brand B) was found highest contaminated with ZEN (13.45 μg/kg).

Aflatoxin M1 contamination in cow and buffalo milk samples from the North West Frontier Province (NWFP) and Punjab provinces of Pakistan

A total of 178 milk samples (94 of buffalo and 84 of cow) were randomly taken from Punjab and the North West Frontier Province (NWFP) of Pakistan (n = 89 in each province) and analysed for the presence of aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) by HPLC-FLD. From Punjab about 46% of buffalos and 49% of cows milks were contaminated with AFM1 as compared with 52% and 51% for milk samples from NWFP, respectively. Overall, the mean AFM1 concentration was 0.046 µg kg−1 with a maximum of 0.350 µg kg−1. All samples complied with the Codex Alimentarius limit of 0.50 µg kg−1 for AFM1 in milk, but 16.3% of samples exceeded the European Union maximum level of 0.05 µg kg−1. Another set of 415 buffalos and cows milk samples (213 morning milks and 202 evening milks) were analysed. Statistical analysis revealed significant differences (p < 0.05) between mean AFM1 concentrations in milk during the morning (0.043 µg kg−1) and the evening (0.028 µg kg−1) lactation times.

The presence of aflatoxins and ochratoxin A in rice and rice products; and evaluation of dietary intake

In present study aflatoxins (AFs) and ochratoxin A (OTA) were analysed in 208 samples of rice and products collected from central areas of Punjab, Pakistan. The analysis was carried out using HPLC equipped with fluorescence detector. The results have shown that 35% of the samples were found contaminated with AFs, out of which 19% and 24% samples were found to be above the European Union (EU) maximum content for AFB1 and total AFs, respectively. About 19% samples were found contaminated with OTA and 14% samples were found to be above the EU maximum content. The highest mean level of AFB1 and total AFs were found in brown rice samples i.e. 8.91 and 12.4μg/kg, respectively. However, white rice samples have shown the highest mean level of OTA (8.50μg/kg) with highest level of 24.9μg/kg. The high mean dietary exposure 22.2 and 24.2ngkg(-1)bwday(-1) to AFB1 and OTA, respectively poses significant health hazard for local population.

Aflatoxin M1 in milk from urban and rural farmhouses of Punjab, Pakistan

Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) was determined in 107 milk samples collected from urban and rural farmhouses from Punjab, Pakistan, by HPLC with fluorescence detection. An incidence rate of 64% (38/59) in milk samples from urban farmhouses was found, with a mean concentration of 0.064 ± 0.023 μg L−1. In rural samples about 52% (25/48) of milk samples were contaminated with AFM1, with a mean of 0.04 ± 0.034 μg L−1. About 42% of milk samples from urban and 27% from rural farmhouses were well above the limit permitted by the European Union (EU). However, only 15% and 8% of milk samples from urban and rural farmhouses, respectively, exceeded the limit of USDA/Codex regulations. The results showed that the contamination of milk with AFM1 from Punjab, Pakistan, when compared with Codex limit is present and needs continuous monitoring. The awareness and education among dairy farmers on the potential health risks associated with aflatoxins should be communicated.

Climate Change and Food Safety

Worldwide, climate change is already affecting the biology and ecology of some organisms because of changing patterns in crop production and livestock intensification, as well as altering the transport pathways of chemical contaminants. Consequently, climate change is expected to aggravate feed and food safety problems during all phases of food production and supply. Temperature increases and changes in rainfall patterns will have an impact on the persistence and patterns of occurrence of bacteria, viruses, parasites, fungi, and harmful algae and the patterns of their corresponding foodborne diseases and the risk of toxic contamination. Chemical residues of pesticides and veterinary medicines in plant and animal products will be affected by changes in pest pressure. The food risks of heavy metals and persistent organic pollutants (i.e., dioxins, polychlorinated biphenyls) could rise following changes in soils and long-range atmospheric transport, though quantitative estimates are scarce. This chapter summarizes data on the effect of climate change on biological and chemical food safety hazards, as well as it discusses the need for scientific research and development of improved tools, techniques, and practices to adapt the current risk management systems.

Regulations for Food Toxins

To ensure food safety, food regulations are important and integral part and steps should be taken to ensure stricter food regulations for these toxins. These toxins, if present in levels greater than permissible limits, are toxic, carcinogenic, and mutagenic for humans as well as for animals. Several countries have established permissible limits for these food toxins. It is reported that around two million deaths including of children are associated with the use of unsafe food. The current chapter deals with the importance, regulations for different food toxins, and future challenges for food safety issues.

Mycotoxins in Food and Food Products: Current Status

Mycotoxins are naturally occurring, toxic secondary metabolites produced by different array of fungi. The name mycotoxin combines the Greek word mykes meaning “fungus” and the Latin word toxicum meaning “poison.” The term secondary metabolites are the compounds that are dispensable. Thousands of fungal secondary metabolites have been discovered, but currently 450 classes of mycotoxins are identified and characterized. This chapter deals with important groups of mycotoxins, such as aflatoxins, ochratoxins A, Zearalenone, fumonisins, and patulin, their toxicity, and health hazards on humans.

Processing Techniques of Algae-Based Materials

The interest in algae-based biofuels and chemicals has been elevated over the past few years because of their potential to reduce the dependence on petroleum-based fuels and chemicals. Algae is touted to be the most suitable and sustainable feedstock for producing green energy as the whole process is carbon-neutral in nature and can also be implemented for environment-cleaning applications. This chapter mainly focuses on how algae can be utilized as an efficient and economically viable biorefinery feedstock.