Shariq I. Sherwani

Hypoxia-Inducible Factor 1α Induces Fibrosis and Insulin Resistance in White Adipose Tissue

ABSTRACT Adipose tissue can undergo rapid expansion during times of excess caloric intake. Like a rapidly expanding tumor mass, obese adipose tissue becomes hypoxic due to the inability of the vasculature to keep pace with tissue growth. Consequently, during the early stages of obesity, hypoxic conditions cause an increase in the level of hypoxia-inducible factor 1α (HIF1α) expression. Using a transgenic model of overexpression of a constitutively active form of HIF1α, we determined that HIF1α fails to induce the expected proangiogenic response. In contrast, we observed that HIF1α initiates adipose tissue fibrosis, with an associated increase in local inflammation. “Trichrome- and picrosirius red-positive streaks,” enriched in fibrillar collagens, are a hallmark of adipose tissue suffering from the early stages of hypoxia-induced fibrosis. Lysyl oxidase (LOX) is a transcriptional target of HIF1α and acts by cross-linking collagen I and III to form the fibrillar collagen fibers. Inhibition of LOX activity by β-aminoproprionitrile treatment results in a significant improvement in several metabolic parameters and further reduces local adipose tissue inflammation. Collectively, our observations are consistent with a model in which adipose tissue hypoxia serves as an early upstream initiator for adipose tissue dysfunction by inducing a local state of fibrosis.

Phospholipase A2 activation regulates cytotoxicity of methylmercury in vascular endothelial cells.

Mercury has been identified as a risk factor for cardiovascular disease among humans. Through diet, mainly fish consumption, humans are exposed to methylmercury, the biomethylated organic form of environmental mercury. As the endothelium is an important player in homeostasis of the cardiovascular system, here, the authors tested their hypothesis that methylmercury activates the lipid signaling enzyme phospholipase A2 (PLA2) in vascular endothelial cells (ECs), causing upstream regulation of cytotoxicity. To test this hypothesis, the authors used bovine pulmonary artery ECs (BPAECs) cultured in monolayers, following labeling of their membrane phospholipids with [3H]arachidonic acid (AA). The cells were exposed to methylmercury chloride (MMC) and then the release of free AA (index of PLA2 activity) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH; index of cytotoxicity) were determined by liquid scintillation counting and spectrophotometry, respectively. MMC significantly activated PLA2 in a dose-dependent (5 to 15 μM) and time-dependent (0 to 60 min) fashion. Sulfhydryl (thiolprotective) agents, calcium chelators, antioxidants, and PLA2-specific inhibitors attenuated the MMC-induced PLA2 activation, suggesting the role of thiols, reactive oxygen species (ROS), and calcium in the activation of PLA2 in BPAECs. MMC also induced the loss of thiols and increase of lipid peroxidation in BPAECs. MMC induced cytotoxicity in BPAECs as observed by the altered cell morphology and LDH leak, which was significantly attenuated by PLA2 inhibitors. This study established that PLA2 activation through thiols, calcium, and oxidative stress was associated with the cytotoxicity of MMC in BPAECs, drawing attention to the involvement of PLA2 signaling in the methylmercury-induced vascular endothelial dysfunctions.

Role of 5-hydroxymethylcytosine in neurodegeneration

The recent discovery of 5-hydroxymethylcytosine (5hmC), an epigenetic modifier and oxidation product of 5-methylcytosine (5mC), has broadened the scope and understanding of neural development and neurodegenerative diseases. By virtue of their functional groups, 5mC and 5hmC exert opposite effects on gene expression; the former is generally associated with gene silencing whereas the latter is mainly involved in up-regulation of gene expression affecting the cellular processes such as differentiation, development, and aging. Although DNA methylation plays an important role in normal neural development and neuroprotection, an altered pathway due to complex interaction with environmental and genetic factors may cause severe neurodegeneration. The levels of 5hmC in brain increase progressively from birth until death, while in patients with neurodegenerative disorders, the levels are found to be highly compromised. This article discusses the recent developments in the area of hydroxymethylation, with particular emphasis on the role of 5hmC in neurodegenerative diseases including Alzheimers disease, Parkinsons diseases and Huntingtons disease. We have also included recent findings on the role of 5hmC in brain tumors (gliomas). Despite compelling evidence on the involvement of 5hmC in neurodegeneration, it is yet to be established whether this epigenetic molecule is the cause or the effect of the onset and progression of neurodegenerative diseases.

Significance of HbA1c Test in Diagnosis and Prognosis of Diabetic Patients

Diabetes is a global endemic with rapidly increasing prevalence in both developing and developed countries. The American Diabetes Association has recommended glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c) as a possible substitute to fasting blood glucose for diagnosis of diabetes. HbA1c is an important indicator of long-term glycemic control with the ability to reflect the cumulative glycemic history of the preceding two to three months. HbA1c not only provides a reliable measure of chronic hyperglycemia but also correlates well with the risk of long-term diabetes complications. Elevated HbA1c has also been regarded as an independent risk factor for coronary heart disease and stroke in subjects with or without diabetes. The valuable information provided by a single HbA1c test has rendered it as a reliable biomarker for the diagnosis and prognosis of diabetes. This review highlights the role of HbA1c in diagnosis and prognosis of diabetes patients.

Calcium and Calmodulin Regulate Mercury-induced Phospholipase D Activation in Vascular Endothelial Cells

Earlier, we reported that mercury, the environmental risk factor for cardiovascular diseases, activates vascular endothelial cell (EC) phospholipase D (PLD). Here, we report the novel and significant finding that calcium and calmodulin regulated mercury-induced PLD activation in bovine pulmonary artery ECs (BPAECs). Mercury (mercury chloride, 25 μM; thimerosal, 25 μM; methylmercury, 10 μM) significantly activated PLD in BPAECs. Calcium chelating agents and calcium depletion of the medium completely attenuated the mercury-induced PLD activation in ECs. Calmodulin inhibitors significantly attenuated mercury-induced PLD activation in BPAECs. Despite the absence of L-type calcium channels in ECs, nifedipine, nimodipine, and diltiazem significantly attenuated mercury-induced PLD activation and cytotoxicity in BPAECs. This study demonstrated the importance of calcium and calmodulin in the regulation of mercury-induced PLD activation and the protective action of L-type calcium channel blockers against mercury cytotoxicity in vascular ECs, suggesting mechanisms of mercury vasculotoxicity and mercury-induced cardiovascular diseases.

Pulmonary fibrosis inducer, bleomycin, causes redox-sensitive activation of phospholipase D and cytotoxicity through formation of bioactive lipid signal mediator, phosphatidic acid, in lung microvascular endothelial cells.

The mechanisms of lung microvascular complications and pulmonary hypertension known to be associated with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF), a debilitating lung disease, are not known. Therefore, we investigated whether bleomycin, the widely used experimental IPF inducer, would be capable of activating phospholipase D (PLD) and generating the bioactive lipid signal-mediator phosphatidic acid (PA) in our established bovine lung microvascular endothelial cell (BLMVEC) model. Our results revealed that bleomycin induced the activation of PLD and generation of PA in a dose-dependent (5, 10, and 100 µg) and time-dependent (2-12 hours) fashion that were significantly attenuated by the PLD-specific inhibitor, 5-fluoro-2-indolyl des-chlorohalopemide (FIPI). PLD activation and PA generation induced by bleomycin (5 µg) were significantly attenuated by the thiol protectant (N-acetyl-L-cysteine), antioxidants, and iron chelators suggesting the role of reactive oxygen species (ROS), lipid peroxidation, and iron therein. Furthermore, our study demonstrated the formation of ROS and loss of glutathione (GSH) in cells following bleomycin treatment, confirming oxidative stress as a key player in the bleomycin-induced PLD activation and PA generation in ECs. More noticeably, PLD activation and PA generation were observed to happen upstream of bleomycin-induced cytotoxicity in BLMVECs, which was protected by FIPI. This was also supported by our current findings that exposure of cells to exogenous PA led to internalization of PA and cytotoxicity in BLMVECs. For the first time, this study revealed novel mechanism of the bleomycin-induced redox-sensitive activation of PLD that led to the generation of PA, which was capable of inducing lung EC cytotoxicity, thus suggesting possible bioactive lipid-signaling mechanism/mechanisms of microvascular disorders encountered in IPF.

Intermittent hypoxia exacerbates pancreatic β-cell dysfunction in a mouse model of diabetes mellitus.

STUDY OBJECTIVES The effects of intermittent hypoxia (IH) on pancreatic function in the presence of diabetes and the underlying mechanisms are unclear. We hypothesized that IH would exacerbate pancreatic β-cell dysfunction and alter the fatty acids in the male Tallyho/JngJ (TH) mouse, a rodent model of type 2 diabetes. DESIGN TH mice were exposed for 14 d to either 8 h of IH or intermittent air (IA), followed by an intraperitoneal glucose tolerance test (IPGTT) and tissue harvest. The effect of IH on insulin release was determined by using a β3-adrenergic receptor (AR) agonist. MEASUREMENTS AND RESULTS During IH, pancreatic tissue pO2 decreased from 20.4 ± 0.9 to 5.7 ± 2.6 mm Hg, as determined by electron paramagnetic resonance oximetry. TH mice exposed to IH exhibited higher plasma glucose levels during the IPGTT (P < 0.001) while the insulin levels tended to be lower (P = 0.06). Pancreatic islets of the IH group showed an enhancement of the caspase-3 staining (P = 0.002). IH impaired the β-AR agonist-mediated insulin release (P < 0.001). IH increased the levels of the total free fatty acids and saturated fatty acids (palmitic and stearic acids), and decreased levels of the monounsaturated fatty acids in the pancreas and plasma. Ex vivo exposure of pancreatic islets to palmitic acid suppressed insulin secretion and decreased islet cell viability. CONCLUSIONS Intermittent hypoxia increases pancreatic apoptosis and exacerbates dysfunction in a polygenic rodent model of diabetes. An increase in free fatty acids and a shift in composition towards long chain saturated fatty acid species appear to mediate these effects.

Adiponectin Protects Against Hyperoxic Lung Injury and Vascular Leak

Adiponectin (Ad), an adipokine exclusively secreted by the adipose tissue, has emerged as a paracrine metabolic regulator as well as a protectant against oxidative stress. Pharmacological approaches of protecting against clinical hyperoxic lung injury during oxygen therapy/treatment are limited. We have previously reported that Ad inhibits the NADPH oxidase-catalyzed formation of superoxide from molecular oxygen in human neutrophils. Based on this premise, we conducted studies to determine whether (i) exogenous Ad would protect against the hyperoxia-induced barrier dysfunction in the lung endothelial cells (ECs) in vitro, and (ii) endogenously synthesized Ad would protect against hyperoxic lung injury in wild-type (WT) and Ad-overexpressing transgenic (AdTg) mice in vivo. The results demonstrated that exogenous Ad protected against the hyperoxia-induced oxidative stress, loss of glutathione (GSH), cytoskeletal reorganization, barrier dysfunction, and leak in the lung ECs in vitro. Furthermore, the hyperoxia-induced lung injury, vascular leak, and lipid peroxidation were significantly attenuated in AdTg mice in vivo. Also, AdTg mice exhibited elevated levels of total thiols and GSH in the lungs as compared with WT mice. For the first time, our studies demonstrated that Ad protected against the hyperoxia-induced lung damage apparently through attenuation of oxidative stress and modulation of thiol-redox status.

Lipoxygenase-Catalyzed Phospholipid Peroxidation: Preparation, Purification, and Characterization of Phosphatidylinositol Peroxides

The importance of understanding the mechanisms of modulation of cellular signaling cascades by the peroxidized membrane phospholipids (PLs) is well recognized. The enzyme-catalyzed peroxidation of PLs, as opposed to their oxidation by air and metal catalysis, is well controlled and rapid and yields well-defined PL peroxides which are highly desirable for biological studies. Therefore, here, we chose bovine liver phosphatidylinositol (PI), a crucial membrane PL which acts as the substrate for phospholipase C in cellular signal transduction, as a model membrane PL. We successfully generated the PI peroxides with soybean type-I lipoxygenase (LOX) in the presence of deoxycholate, which facilitates the LOX-mediated peroxidation of the polyunsaturated fatty acids esterified to the PL. The LOX-peroxidized PI, after enzymatic catalysis, was separated from the unoxidized PI in the reaction mixture by normal-phase, high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The extent of LOX-mediated peroxidation of PI following HPLC purification was established by the analysis of lipid phosphorus, conjugated dienes by UV spectrophotometry, peroxides, and loss of fatty acids by gas chromatography. This study established the optimal conditions yielding approximately 46% of peroxidized PI from 300 microg of neat bovine liver PI that was peroxidized by soybean type-I LOX (50 microg) for 30 min in borate buffer (0.2 M, pH 9.0) containing 10 mM deoxycholate.

Trace Amines in Neuropsychiatric Disorders

Trace amines (TAs) are biogenic amines located in mammalian brains and peripheral nervous tissues in low concentrations. Examples of TAs include phenylethylamine, tyramine, tryptamine, and octopamine, all of which are closely related to dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin neurotransmitter systems metabolically. Understanding the role of TAs in the progression of neuropsychiatric disorders is important for elucidating the pathway(s) and mechanism(s) leading up to the management of such disorders. Recently, TAs have been implicated in various neuropsychiatric disorders such as, depression, schizophrenia, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, Parkinson disease, Alzheimer disease, Reye syndrome, Tourette syndrome, epilepsy, and migraines. The neuropsychiatric disorders and the associated psychotropic drugs, coupled with the possibility of the elucidation of the newer pathways have been explored in this chapter along with highlighting the recent advances in the area of TAs chemistry and synaptic physiology and their interrelationships.