Sharon A. Borthwick-Duffy

The Construct of Adaptive Behavior: Its Conceptualization, Measurement, and Use in the Field of Intellectual Disability

This article updates the current conceptualization, measurement, and use of the adaptive behavior construct. Major sections of the article address an understanding of the construct, the current approaches to its measurement, four assessment issues and challenges related to the use of adaptive behavior information for the diagnosis of intellectual disability, and two future issues regarding the relations of adaptive behavior to multidimensional models of personal competence and the distribution of adaptive behavior scores. An understanding of the construct of adaptive behavior and its measurement is critical to clinicians and practitioners in the field because of its role in understanding the phenomenon of intellectual disability, diagnosing a person with intellectual disability, providing a framework for person-referenced education and habilitation goals, and focusing on an essential dimension of human functioning.

The Intellectual Disability Construct and Its Relation to Human Functioning

The American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities’ (AAIDD) Terminology and Classification Committee has two primary purposes in publishing this Perspective: (a) to share our thinking about the construct underlying the term intellectual disability (henceforth the intellectual disability construct) and its relation to human functioning and (b) to ask for input from the field because the committee is preparing a proposal for the upcoming Definition, Classification and Systems of Supports manual, to be published in 2009 or 2010. The article has three sections. In the first section, we make a distinction between an operational definition, which operationalizes the intellectual disability construct and provides the basis for diagnosis and classification, and a constitutive definition, which explains the underlying construct and provides the basis for theory– model development and planning individualized supports. In the second section, we provide an historical overview of how the construct underlying the term mental retardation (henceforth, the mental retardation construct) differs from the construct underlying intellectual disability. In the third section, we describe the parameters to the proposed AAIDD theoretical framework of human functioning that reflects our current understanding of the multidimensionality of human functioning that underlies the intellectual disability construct and the significant role that individualized supports play in human functioning. The article concludes with a brief discussion of the benefits to the field that accrue from a clear understanding of both the differences between an operational and constitutive definition and the fundamental properties of the intellectual disability construct. Operational Versus Constitutive Definitions

The association between psychiatric diagnoses and severe behavior problems in mental retardation.

To investigate the relationship between psychiatric disorders and severe behavior problems in mental retardation, statewide client databases from developmental disabilities services in California (N = 89,419) and New York (N = 45,683) were analyzed and juxtaposed. The study focussed on nine major DSM-III-R psychiatric categories (or their equivalents), and severe forms of aggressive behavior, property destruction, self-injurious behavior, and stereotyped behavior in individuals 45 years old and younger with mental retardation of all levels of severity. In California, 3.9% had at least one psychiatric diagnosis; in New York, 5.4%. The rate of specific psychiatric diagnoses was variable across states, suggesting local preferences in diagnostic practices. Severe behavior problems occurred in 22.1% in California and in 41.4% in New York. This difference in rates can be attributed in part to different recording criteria for behavior problems. With regard to the association between psychiatric diagnoses and problem behaviors the results were consistent across databases: No compelling correlations were found. This means that neither aggression, self-injury, destruction, nor stereotypies determine whether a person receives a psychiatric diagnosis or not.

Parent Perceptions of Inclusive Practices for Their Children with Significant Cognitive Disabilities

While there has been a recent trend toward inclusive educational placements for students with significant cognitive disabilities, little information exists regarding parent perceptions of such practices. This article reviews the construction and analysis of a scale designed to encourage research in this area. An examination of three dimensions of perceptions assessed by the scale found that parents were more positive regarding the impact of inclusion on mutual social benefits, acceptance, and treatment of their child and more apprehensive regarding the impact of inclusion on the quality of educational services their child receives. Discussion includes how these findings may offer insight into reasoning used by some parents when considering the benefits of more inclusive educational placements for their own children.

Economic Pressure, Maternal Depression, and Child Adjustment in Latino Families: An Exploratory Study

The goal of this study was to investigate the impact of poverty and economic pressure upon the adjustment of mothers and children in immigrant Latino families. Participants included 56 first generation Latina mothers who completed questionnaires addressing economic difficulties, depression, social support, and behavior problems exhibited by their children (30 boys, 26 girls) who ranged in ages from 4 to 13. Results indicate that maternal depression mediates the relationship between maternal economic pressure and child adjustment. Social support was found to further moderate the relationship between maternal depression and child internalizing problems. Gender differences indicated that relations were stronger among mothers of boys than mothers of girls.

Measuring problem behaviors in children with mental retardation: dimensions and predictors.

Scores from the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL; Achenbach, 1991a) and the Client Development Evaluation Report (CDER; California Department of Developmental Services, 1980) for 67 children and adolescents with mental retardation were examined to evaluate the factorial validity of the instruments. Four factor analyses were conducted. The initial factor analysis of CBCL data failed to confirm the presence of the five first-order factors previously reported for the CBCL standardization sample (Achenbach, 1991b). Second, the higher-order factors of Externalizing and Internalizing behaviors, similar to the structure reported for the CBCL standardization sample (Achenbach, 1991b), were confirmed on the present sample. Third, the two CDER factors of Personal Maladaption and Social Maladaption, previously identified by Widaman, Gibbs, and Geary (1987), were also confirmed. Finally, a higher-order factor analysis of the two factor scores from the CBCL and two factor scores from the CDER was conducted to study the congruence between the CBCL Externalizing and CDER Social Maladaption dimensions, and between the CBCL Internalizing and CDER Personal Maladaption factors. Moderate levels of congruence were found. Next, child characteristics, including level of mental retardation, age, and four dimensions of adaptive behavior, were used as predictors of problem behavior. No child characteristics were significantly related to the CBCL Externalizing dimension, but child age and level of mental retardation were significant predictors of the CBCL Internalizing dimension. CDER Cognitive Competence predicted CDER Social Maladaption, and child age predicted CDER Personal Maladaption. The findings are discussed in relation to previous studies of problem behaviors of children and adolescents with mental retardation.

Influences on parent perceptions of inclusive practices for their children with mental retardation

Influences on parent perceptions regarding the practice of integrating students with significant cognitive disabilities into general education classrooms were examined. Findings confirmed that perceptions were significantly influenced by characteristics of the parent and the child as well as by factors associated with the childs placement history. Further, factors influencing these perceptions differed according to varying dimensions of inclusion being considered. We argue that the efficacy of any specific type of educational model cannot be determined without a consideration of the complex dynamics involved in the interplay between individual child characteristics, parent and family values, and the perceived role of the school.

One Size Doesn't Fit All: Full Inclusion and Individual Differences

Recent studies have documented the increasing trend among school districts toward adopting full inclusion as the predominant model for serving students who qualify for special education services. Although these data may suggest that a paradigm shift has already taken place and that a consensus of opinion has been achieved, several organizations representing students with specific disabilities continue to support a continuum of placement options. This paper challenges a “one size fits all” approach to special education, and highlights the importance of considering the individual characteristics of students. The relevance of research on full inclusion, as well as methodological issues that limit generalizability of findings related to student outcomes, are discussed. The radical perspective of full inclusion is rejected in favor of an approach that emphasizes the complexities of placement decisions.

The Structure and Development of Adaptive Behaviors

Publisher Summary This chapter provides an overview of the adaptive behavior domain. It discusses the implications of extant research for theory development. The chapter emphasizes three main topics; (1) determining the structure of adaptive behaviors, (2) estimating lifespan developmental trends for the growth, maintenance, and aging of adaptive behaviors, and (3) investigating factors that may modify or moderate the development and aging of adaptive behaviors. A multidimensional representation of the adaptive behavior domain, including several adaptive behavior factors and the factors of maladaptive behavior, is adequate to study the structure of adaptive behaviors; the finding that different types of adaptive behaviors exhibit different life-span developmental trends strengthens this multifactorial structure. Considering all of these issues will lead in the direction of a fuller understanding of the life-span development of adaptive and maladaptive behaviors.

Special Education Students Exiting the Educational System

In this paper, we describe the problems inherent in current criteria employed by federal agencies for estimating special education graduation and dropout rates. In addition, we present changes in reporting categories proposed by the Council of Chief State School Officers and the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) in reporting categories, and discuss the potential implications of these changes for the ways in which special education students may be counted. We examine Office of Special Education Programs (OSEP) reports on exiting behavior of special education students. Figures in OSEPs five exiting categories demonstrate NCESs inflated estimates of special education dropouts. Finally, OSEPs use of the “Other Basis for Exiting” category is examined in light of apparent beliefs that cases recorded in this category are undocumented dropouts.