Sharon Faith Schoen

A comparison of procedures in teaching self-help skills: Increasing assistance, time delay, and observational learning

The effectiveness and efficiency of two prompt-fading procedures were compared during the instruction of two self-help skills to four pairs of developmentally delayed preschoolers. In addition, the effect of observational learning was examined. Within a combined multiple probe and parallel treatments design, one member of each pair received direct instruction on the two skills. One skill was taught using an increasing assistance prompting procedure and the other skill was taught using a constant time delay procedure. The other member of the pair was prompted to observe the instruction, but was not taught directly. Reliability of scoring and procedural integrity were estimated, and social validity of outcomes considered. Findings indicated a slight but discernible advantage of using the time delay procedure rather than the increasing assistance procedure to teach complex, chained-response tasks. Further, considerable learning resulted solely from the observation of instruction.

Impact of time delay, observational learning, and attentional cuing upon word recognition during integrated small-group instruction.

The effects of constant time delay, observational learning opportunities, and differential attentional cuing were examined during the small-group instruction of students in an integrated setting. Three students, one individual with moderate mental retardation and two individuals characterized as at-risk learners, participated in learning sight words through direct instruction and observational-learning conditions. A multiple probe design across three students was combined with a multitreatment design across treatment conditions to assess the impact of instructional variables. Reliability of scoring and procedural integrity were estimated and social validity of outcomes was considered. Findings support the salience of the constant time delay procedure in facilitating word acquisition in small, heterogeneous, and inclusive group learning arrangements. Further, a significant amount of learning through observation occurred for all students under both a general and specific attentional cue condition. A slight but discernible advantage of using the specific cuing strategy of transcribing target and nontarget words was realized.

Action Research: A Developmental Model of Professional Socialization

This article proposes a developmental model to socialize teachers at all levels (preservice, novice, and experienced) and in all positions (general education, special education, elementary school, middle school, and high school) in the methodology of action research. A process for advancing professional understanding is theorized to include the phases of acquisition, fluency, and generalization. Within each phase, a confluence of skills, abilities, attitudes, and contexts are addressed to highlight critical considerations that facilitate the systematic acculturation of teachers to this potentially compelling research approach.

Learning To Learn Through Observation

Observational learning is theoretically conceptualized as a skill that can be developed along a learning hierarchy from acquisition and fluency to generalization of initiative behavior. This review characterizes these levels of observational learning and details differential teaching strategies that have been endeavored at each level. The hierarchy can assist the teacher in determining the status of a students observational learning skills, in recognizing essential instructional components in planning, and in organizing instruction to systematically enhance the students ability to acquire more complex observational skills.

Bullying and harassment in the United States

Abstract This article addresses the issue of bullying and harassment in the United States. The significance of the issue is critical. A historical perspective on the growing attention to and need to confront this social ill is presented. Seminal research related to the topic is interwoven throughout. Practical considerations in addressing the problem are reviewed. Finally, the current state of the bullying epidemic is explored, with implications for the future.

An Examination of Two Prompt Fading Procedures and Opportunities to Observe in Teaching Handicapped Preschoolers Self-Help Skills.

Utilizing four pairs of preschoolers with Downs Syndrome, the efficacy of two prompt fading procedures was compared during instruction of two self-help skills. In addition, the efficacy of observational learning was examined. Within a modified multiple baseline and multi-element design, one member of each pair received direct instruction on two skills. One skill was taught using a decreasing assistance prompting procedure, the other using a graduated guidance procedure. The other child was prompted to observe instruction, but not taught directly. Procedure and task were counter-balanced, the reliability of scoring and the social validity of outcomes were estimated, and the integrity of procedural implementation was examined. Results indicate that both procedures were effective in increasing the target behaviors. Surprisingly, children who only observed also acquired both tasks. Results generalized across assessors and were maintained across time. Implications for instructional planning for individuals who are mentally retarded are discussed.

Decreasing Noncompliance in a Severely Multihandicapped Child.

The noncompliant behavior of a severely multihandicapped 6-year-old boy was modified through systematic manipulations of an instructional antecedent. Responding to teacher requests within 5 seconds was measured under three conditions: decreased rate of commands, increased rate of commands, and unconditional rate of commands, coupled with contingent consequation. A multielement design was employed to evaluate differential effectiveness. Increasing the density of instructional commands and reinforcing discrete compliant responses was found to be the most effective treatment package for controlling behavior. Commands issued at a frequent and consistent pace reduced inapproriate responding to zero, suggesting the viable potential of this antecedent as a variable in programming for noncompliant children.

Action Research: Decreasing Acting-Out Behavior and Increasing Learning

monitoring checklist that a teacher used to help the student control off-task behavior. The checklist is just one activity that successfully decreased negative behavior and promoted learning in this action research project. This article describes how the project helped one student with learning disabilities increase his positive behavior—and be more successful socially, behaviorally, and cognitively. When teachers decide to explore a problem encountered in the classroom, such as a student’s problem behavior, they need a systematic approach that incorporates analytic examination and continuous refinement of the teaching/learning process. Action research is just such an approach. By definition, action research is founded on a commitment to improve the quality of life of others through critical reflection and inquiry (Archer, Holly, & Kasten, 2001; Johnson, A. P., 2003). The process evolves as teachers gather information about and reflect on their students’ needs, abilities, and learning styles to enhance educational outcomes (Schoen & Bullard, 2002; Schoen & Schoen, 2003). Questioning, assessing, exploring, researching, discussing, documenting, evaluating, monitoring, analyzing, refining, and revising become recursive aspects of the process.