Shawn D. Whiteman

The Family Contexts of Gender Development in Childhood and Adolescence

We review research on the familys role in gender development during childhood and adolescence. Our discussion highlights childrens dyadic family relationship experiences with their parents and siblings; additionally, we describe ways in which the larger system of family relationships, including gendered dynamics in the marriage and the differential family experiences of sisters versus brothers may have implications for gender development. We also emphasize the significance of contextual factors—ranging from situational demands and affordances to forces emanating from the larger social ecology—in family gender socialization. We conclude that family experiences may have a more important impact on gender development than has previously been believed, and we highlight directions for future study. These include: (1) applying more complex models of parent socialization and family dynamics to the study of the familys role in gender development; (2) expanding on research directed at the socialization of sex differences to study how family dynamics are linked to individual differences in girls’ and boys’ gendered qualities and behaviors; and (3) further exploring how contextual factors exert an impact on gender socialization in the family.

Links between sex-typed time use in middle childhood and gender development in early adolescence

The authors studied sex-typing in the kinds (e.g., sports, handicrafts) and social contexts (same- vs. other-sex companions) of childrens free time activities, and the links between sex-typed activities and gender development over 2 years. Participants were 200 White, working- and middle-class children (103 girls, 97 boys; mean age = 10.86 years). In annual home interviews, children rated their self-esteem, gender role attitudes and sex-typed personality qualities, academic interests, and school grades. During 7 nightly phone interviews each year, children reported on their activities. Boys were more sex-typed than girls in their peer activities, and children were least sex-typed in their activities with siblings. Sex-typed activities in middle childhood predicted individual differences in gender development in early adolescence.

Characteristics and correlates of sibling relationships in two-parent African American families.

The authors studied sibling relationships of African American youths and family and youth characteristics linked to sibling dynamics. Participants were fathers, mothers, and 2 siblings (M = 14.04 and M = 10.34 years of age) from 172 working-middle class 2-parent families. Cluster analyses of data collected in home interviews revealed 3 sibling relationship types: positive, negative, and distant. Parent education was lower, parent religiosity higher, and parent-child relationships more positive in the positive group; maternal discrimination experiences were higher in the negative group; youth ethnic identity was stronger in the positive group; and youth depression and risky behavior were higher in the negative group. The findings target sociocultural factors to consider in interventions for African American families.

The Development and Implications of Peer Emotional Support for Student Service Members/Veterans and Civilian College Students

Student service members/veterans represent a growing population on college campuses. Despite this growth, scholarly investigations into their health- and adjustment-related issues are almost nonexistent. The limited research that is available suggests that student service members/veterans may have trouble connecting with their civilian counterparts and be at risk for social isolation. The present study compared the development and implications of emotional support from peers among 199 student service members/veterans and 181 civilian students through 3 distinct occasions over the course of 1 calendar year. Data were collected via electronic survey. Measured constructs included perceived emotional support from university friends, mental health, alcohol use, and academic functioning. A series of multilevel models revealed that student service members/veterans reported less emotional support from their peers compared with their civilian counterparts; yet, emotional support from peers increased similarly for both groups over time. Although, increasing peer emotional support was generally related to better academic and mental health outcomes for both groups, the links between emotional support and mental health were stronger for civilian students. Results suggest that mental health practitioners, particularly those on college campuses, should be prepared to deal with veteran-specific experiences that occur before and during college.

Student Service Members/Veterans in Higher Education: A Systematic Review

Abstract We systematically reviewed the data-based peer-reviewed research examining student service members/veterans (SSM/V) in higher education. Compared to civilian peers, SSM/V exhibit disproportionately higher rates of health risk behaviors and psychological symptoms, and personal and educational adjustment difficulties (i.e., inability to connect with peers and faculty on campus). Combat-related trauma is a contributing factor to these differences. The current evidence-base is scant, lacking nationally representative and/or longitudinal data to inform policies and programs for SSM/V.

Implications of Posttraumatic Stress Among Military-Affiliated and Civilian Students

Abstract Objectives: To determine whether posttraumatic stress (PTS) symptoms are associated with problem drinking and alcohol-related consequences, as well as academic correlates among military-affiliated and civilian students. Participants: The final sample (n = 248) included 78 combat-exposed student service members/veterans, 53 non–combat-exposed student service members/ veterans, 38 ROTC (Reserve Officers’ Training Corps) students, and 79 civilian students. Methods: Self-report data were collected spring 2011 via a Web-based survey measuring PTS, problem drinking, alcohol-related consequences, grade point average, educational self-efficacy, academic amotivation, and persistence. Results: Military students exposed to combat-related trauma reported significantly greater PTS symptoms than other military and civilian groups. PTS symptoms were associated with problem drinking and alcohol-related consequences for all groups, yet unrelated to academic correlates among those exposed to combat-related trauma. Conclusion: This study adds to the scant literature base exploring the unique characteristics of student service members/veterans in higher education.

The alcohol use and associated mental health problems of student service members/veterans in higher education

Aims: This study examined: (a) whether student service members/veterans attending college drank more frequently or in greater quantities than non-service peers; and (b) whether links between student service members/veterans’ alcohol use and mental health-related outcomes differed from civilian students. Methods: Participants included 145 student service members/veterans and 136 civilian students attending 16 different higher education institutions within one Midwestern state. Data were collected via web-based survey assessing alcohol-related attitudes and behaviours, problem drinking, depression, anxiety and post-traumatic stress. Findings: In general, the current sample of veterans/student service members drank similarly to younger, civilian students. Furthermore, compared to civilian students, veterans/student service members’ binge drinking was differentially associated to indicators of problem drinking and mental health symptoms such as depression/anxiety and PTSD. Conclusions: In general, findings suggest that binge drinking among student service members/veterans was associated with greater problems, highlighting potential adjustment difficulties/risks for this group.

Gender Differences in the Associations Among Body Mass Index, Weight Loss, Exercise, and Drinking Among College Students

Abstract Objective: To explore gender differences regarding weight management behaviors of college drinkers. Participants: Nationally representative sample of college students from the fall 2008 American College Health Associations National College Health Assessment II (N = 26,062 students). Methods: Structural equation modeling was used to examine potential gender differences in associations among exercise, weight loss behaviors, and alcohol use. Results: Critical ratio tests revealed that associations between exercise and weight loss behaviors were more strongly correlated among females as compared with males. For females, there was a small negative association between exercise and drinking behaviors; in contrast, for males, there was a positive relationship between exercise and alcohol use. Weight loss behaviors were positively associated with drinking for both female and male students; however, the association was significantly stronger for females. Conclusions: This investigation furthers previous research on drunkorexia and also sheds additional light on the gender-based differences in weight management behaviors of drinkers.

Mechanisms of sibling socialization in normative family development

Siblings are important sources of social influence throughout childhood and adolescence. Nevertheless, the processes by which siblings influence one another remain relatively unexplored. We highlight two theories of sibling influence-sibling deidentification and social learning-that offer insights as to how and why siblings develop similar and different attributes, attitudes, and behaviors. Recognizing the need to move past post hoc explanations, we suggest several directions for how these two influence processes can be measured directly in future work. Research on sibling influence also can be improved by integrating these theories and attending to their domains of influence.

A Comparative Analysis of Student Service Member/Veteran and Civilian Student Drinking Motives.

The present study examined the nature and correlates of 252 student service members’/military veteran and civilian college students’ drinking motivations. Data was collected via electronic survey. Results revealed no differences between military affiliated and civilian students in mean levels of alcohol motivations; however, the links between alcohol motives and problem drinking differed for these two groups of students. Specifically, coping motivations were linked to problem drinking for student service members’/veterans but not civilian students.