Shawn N. Fraser

Relationships between Exercise Regulations and Motivational Consequences in University Students.

Abstract The aim of this study was to examine propositions stemming from Self-Determination Theory (SDT) that contend motivational consequences vary as a function of different regulations in the exercise domain. Participants (N = 276; n = 98 men; n = 178 women) completed inventories assessing exercise regulations, current exercise behavior, and behavioral intentions to continue exercising for the next 4 months and the effort and importance associated with exercise participation. Bivariate analyses indicated autonomous exercise regulations (identified and intrinsic) were the strongest correlates of each motivational consequence across both sexes, and introjected regulation was positively associated with exercise consequences in women. Simultaneous multiple regression analyses indicated that exercise regulations accounted for a sizeable portion of the variance across each motivational consequence in both sexes (R2adj values ranged from .20 to .53). Both regression and structure coefficients revealed that introjected regulation was a stronger motivational force in women than men, and identified regulation was the most important predictor of all three motivational consequences in both sexes. Collectively, these findings suggest that exercise regulations differentially predict motivational consequences across sexes, and future research using this theoretical framework for examining motivational issues pertinent to the exercise domain appears warranted.

Examining the Psychometric Properties of the Behavioral Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire

The purpose of this study was to examine select psychometric properties of the Behavioral Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire (BREQ; Mullen, Markland, & Ingledew, 1997). To accomplish this aim, data were gathered in 2 phases to evaluate the BREQs factorial composition and structure and the relation between the BREQ, need satisfaction, exercise behavior, and relevant motivational constructs. Participants completed measures assessing psychological need satisfaction, optimism, perceived behavioral control, exercise behavior, and the BREQ. Phase 1 results supported the original 4-factor measurement model and a simplex model of structural relations between latent BREQ constructs suggested within self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985), and results supported the positive relations between more self-determined motives and greater psychological need satisfaction and frequent exercise behavior. Phase 2 results provided further construct validity evidence for the BREQ by linking subscale scores with greater perceived behavioral control in a manner consistent with theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985). Collectively, these results further support the construct validity of the BREQ and lend credence to the notion of measuring exercise motivation from a multidimensional perspective using self-determination theory as a guiding framework in the exercise domain.

Examining the Role of Social Support and Group Cohesion in Exercise Compliance

The present study sought to examine the role of social support and group cohesion in the compliance behavior of females required to exercise for health-related reasons. Compliance behavior was assessed as attendance and dropout behavior. Participants (N = 49) drawn from a clinical exercise group completed questionnaires to assess cohesion and social support. Discriminant function analyses were able to discriminate between high and low attenders as well as between dropouts and graduates. Participants reporting high scores on the support provision of reliable alliance and the cohesion factor of ATG-Task, along with low scores on the social support provision of guidance, were more likely to attend a higher proportion of classes. For dropouts, participants with higher scores on the support provision of reliable alliance were less likely to drop out. As a secondary objective, it was found that cohesion and social support variables both contributed to the successful prediction of attendance.

An experimental investigation of the relation between catastrophizing and activity intolerance

&NA; The present study examined the value of a measure of catastrophizing as a predictor of activity intolerance in response to delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS). A sample of 50 (17 men, 33 women) sedentary undergraduates participated in an exercise protocol designed to induce muscle soreness and were asked to return 2 days later to perform the same physical maneuvres. Participants performed five strength exercises that emphasized the eccentric component of the muscle contraction in order to induce DOMS. Dependent variables of interest were the proportion reduction in total weight lifted, and the number of repetitions. Analyses revealed that catastrophizing, assessed prior to the first exercise bout, was significantly correlated with negative mood, pain and with reduction in weight lifted. Regression analyses revealed that catastrophizing predicted reductions in weight lifted even after controlling for pain and negative mood. These findings extend previous research in demonstrating that catastrophizing is associated with objective indices of activity intolerance associated with pain. Implications of these findings for understanding pain‐related disability are addressed.

Is the theory of planned behavior a useful framework for understanding exercise adherence during phase II cardiac rehabilitation

PURPOSE This study evaluated the theory of planned behavior (TPB) as a framework for understanding exercise adherence during phase II cardiac rehabilitation (CR). METHODS A total of 215 patients completed a baseline questionnaire that included the TPB constructs and past exercise. Exercise adherence was measured via program attendance during phase II CR. RESULTS Hierarchic regression analyses indicated that attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control (PBC) explained 30% of the variance in exercise intention, with attitude, subjective norm, and PBC each making significant unique contributions to intention. Furthermore, exercise intention explained 12% of the variance in exercise adherence. Finally, the behavioral, normative, and control beliefs provided novel information concerning why patients in phase II CR hold certain attitudes, subjective norms, PBC, and exercise intentions. CONCLUSION Results of the present study provide evidence that the TPB is a useful framework for understanding exercise intentions and adherence during phase II CR.

The relationship between commitment and exercise behavior

Objectives: The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between commitment and exercise behavior using the Sport Commitment Model (SCM; J Sport & Exercise Psychology, 15, 1) as a guiding conceptual framework. Design: Cross-sectional survey. Methods: Participants at two universities (N1=205; 83.4% female; N2=223; 73.1% female) provided demographic information and completed measures of exercise commitment and frequency of exercise behavior. Results: Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses supported the presence of 5 determinants (personal investments, social support, satisfaction, social constraints, and invovlement alternatives) and 2 dimensions (‘want’ and ‘have’) of commitment. Structural equation modeling analyses supported the predictive utility of the SCM accounting for 31% and 51% of the commitment dimension variance and 12% of the exercise behavior variance respectively. Satisfaction and personal investment predicted both commitment dimensions, whereas alternatives and social constraints predicted ‘have to’ commitment only, and the ‘want to’ commitment dimension was the only significant predictor of exercise behavior. Conclusion: These results render some support for the psychometric properties of the measures used to assess commitment constructs in the exercise domain and provide partial support for the application of the SCM to the study of exercise motivation issues.

How does coping change with development? A review of childhood and adolescence sport coping research

Abstract It is important to study how children and adolescents cope with stressors in sport because effective coping enhances sport experiences and prevents psychological and physiological problems that can lead to sport withdrawal. The purpose of this review was to summarize the existing child and adolescent coping research to establish how coping changes with development in the achievement context of sport. We reviewed and summarized relevant coping research published from 1980 to 2004 using a ‘content analysis’ approach to identify consistencies and limitations in this literature. Four content areas were examined: coping responses, gender differences, consistency of coping/coping style, and coping effectiveness. Ways in which coping changes with development from childhood to adolescence were examined within each of these content areas. Fundamental future research questions and implications for research design are presented.

Cross-validation of the revised motivation for physical activity measure in active women.

Recent research (Mullen & Markland, 1997) and commentary (Vallerand & Fortier, 1998) suggests there has been a surge of interest in understanding exercise motivation from the perspective of Self-Determination Theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 1985). According to SDT, social contexts that facilitate the satisfaction of competence, autonomy, and relatedness needs underpin the development of more self-determined motives. These motives have subsequently been linked with greater behavioral persistence and more positive psychological functioning in both sport and exercise contexts (for a review, see Vallerand & Fortier, 1998). An important aspect in the study of these theoretical relationships has been the need to develop psychometrically sound instruments that adequately measure the constructs embedded within SDT. One instrument developed for this purpose is the Motivation for Physical Activity Measure (MPAM; Frederick & Ryan, 1993), which was designed to assess multiple motives for physical activityparticipation. In this regard, competence, enjoyment, and body relations were deemed representative of intrinsic and extrinsic motives prevalent in the physical domain. Ryan and colleagues (Ryan, Frederick, Lepes, Rubio, & Sheldon, 1997) later revised the MPAM (forming the MPAM-R) by adding both social and health-fitness

The Enduring Impact of Social Factors on Exercise Tolerance in Men Attending Cardiac Rehabilitation

PURPOSE: This study explored the influence of social support on a prognostic indicator among cardiac patients, exercise tolerance. The relationship of sociodemographic factors to social support was examined, as well as the role of social support as a potential mediator between sociodemographic factors and exercise tolerance. METHODS: Archival data were collected from a sample of 254 men referred to cardiac rehabilitation. An exercise tolerance test was completed upon entry into cardiac rehabilitation, after 14 weeks, and after 9 months. RESULTS: Sociodemographic factors and social support reported upon entry into the cardiac rehabilitation program were related to initial and post-cardiac rehabilitation exercise tolerance, after controlling for admitting diagnoses, medical history, smoking, and perceived severity of illness. Overall, 28% of the variance in exercise tolerance was explained at baseline, 19% at 14 weeks, and 20% at 9 months. Specifically, older individuals had poorer exercise tolerance, whereas those with more income had better exercise tolerance. Social support was positively related to exercise tolerance at all 3 times. Older men reported less social support than younger men did, and those with more income reported more social support. However, social support did not mediate the relationship between sociodemographic factors and exercise tolerance. CONCLUSIONS: Results support the potential use of broad social factors in examining the determinants of prognostic factors for heart patients.

Pedometer ownership, motivation, and walking: do people walk the talk?

Walking can reduce resting blood pressure (Kelley, Kelly, & Tran, 2001), improve blood lipid profiles (Kelley, Kelley, & Tran, 2004), and reduce the risk for cardiovascular disease and stroke (Oguma & ShinodeaTagawa, 2004) among adults. Similarly, pedometer-based walking programs have resulted in decreased waist girth and resting heart rate among sedentary adults (Chan, Ryan, & Tudor-Locke, 2004). Due to such demonstrated health benefits and because walking is an activity in which people of all ages can engage at little cost, it is often promoted as an excellent means to achieve lifestyle physical activity goals (Craig, Cameron, Russell, & Beaulieu, 2001). One approach to increasing walking may be to use a pedometer as a measure of behavior, particularly as pedometers are becoming increasingly popular. For example, a recent public-private collaborative promotional campaign that included pedometer distribution through cereal boxes was associated with increased ownership of pedometers among Canadians (Craig, Cragg, Tudor-Locke, & Bauman, 2006). Further, because of the feedback pedometers provide, it has been argued that they motivate individuals to be more physically active (Rooney, Smalley, Larson, & Havens, 2003; TudorLocke & Myers, 2001). Researchers have reported that a pedometer-based walking program increased walking by an average of 3,000 steps per day (Chan et al., 2004). However, other researchers found that walking behavior increased across three intervention groups (pedometer only, pedometer and social cognitive intervention, and standard care but no pedometer) indicating that pedometers were not a significant influence on increased physical activity (Duvall, Dinger, Taylor, & Bemben, 2004). Theories of health behavior are thought to work through mediating variables. Therefore, interventions should be targeted at these mediators as opposed to the actual behavior of interest (Baranowski, Anderson, & Carmack, 1998). Examples of mediating variables are self-efficacy and outcome expectations in social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1997). Self-efficacy is the belief that an individual has the ability to achieve a given behavioral goal, and outcome expectations are beliefs that a given behavior will provide the desired outcome (Bandura, 1997). Self-efficacy in exercise has been well researched and found to be a strong contributor to exercise behavior (Spence, Burgess, et al., 2006). Research examining whether pedometers can increase self-efficacy is warranted, as they may contribute to motivation. For example, a pedometer and education program increased self-efficacy for walking behavior in adults (Rooney, Gritt, Havens, Mathiason, & Clough, 2005). Similarly, wearing pedometers in conjunction with goal setting and keeping a logbook resulted in increased self-efficacy and walking behavior among a sample of women (Rooney, et al., 2003). However, other researchers provided narrative evidence of the motivational benefits of wearing a pedometer, but there was no increase in walking behavior (Mutrie, Wright, Wilson, & Gunnyeon, 2004). These authors also reported an increase in self-efficacy for walking behavior in both an intervention group (participants wore a pedometer and could check it for feedback) and a control group (participants wore a pedometer but could not check it). Submitted: May 30, 2006 Accepted: November 13, 2006