Sheila Shukla

Mercury and other metals in eggs and feathers of glaucous-winged gulls ( Larus glaucescens ) in the Aleutians

Levels of mercury and other contaminants should be lower in birds nesting on isolated oceanic islands and at high latitudes without any local or regional sources of contamination, compared to more urban and industrialized temperate regions. We examined concentrations of arsenic, cadmium, chromium, lead, manganese, mercury and selenium in the eggs, and the feathers of fledgling and adult glaucous-winged gulls (Larus glaucescens) nesting in breeding colonies on Adak, Amchitka, and Kiska Islands in the Aleutian Chain of Alaska in the Bering Sea/North Pacific. We tested the following null hypotheses: 1) There were no differences in metal levels among eggs and feathers of adult and fledgling glaucous-winged gulls, 2) There were no differences in metal levels among gulls nesting near the three underground nuclear test sites (Long Shot 1965, Milrow 1969, Cannikin 1971) on Amchitka, 3) There were no differences in metal levels among the three islands, and 4) There were no gender-related differences in metal levels. All four null hypotheses were rejected at the 0.05 level, although there were few differences among the three test sites on Amchitka. Eggs had the lowest levels of cadmium, lead, and mercury, and the feathers of adults had the lowest levels of selenium. Comparing only adults and fledglings, adults had higher levels of cadmium, chromium, lead and mercury, and fledglings had higher levels of arsenic, manganese and selenium. There were few consistent interisland differences, although levels were generally lower for eggs and feathers from gulls on Amchitka compared to the other islands. Arsenic was higher in both adult feathers and eggs from Amchitka compared to Adak, and chromium and lead were higher in adult feathers and eggs from Adak compared to Amchitka. Mercury and arsenic, and chromium and manganese levels were significantly correlated in the feathers of both adult and fledgling gulls. The feathers of males had significantly higher levels of chromium and manganese than did females. The levels of most metals in feathers are below those known to be associated with adverse effects in the gulls or their predators. However, levels of mercury in some gull eggs are within a range suggesting that several eggs should not be eaten in one day by sensitive humans.

Heavy metals in Pacific cod (Gadus macrocephalus) from the Aleutians: location, age, size, and risk.

Considerable attention has been devoted to the risks from mercury (Hg) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) to high-level predators (including humans) who consume freshwater fish. Although the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) issued advisories because of Hg for four marine fish species, there are few data on lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), or other metals in Bering Sea fish generally, or on the risk these levels pose to the fish themselves or to consumers of marine fish. Levels of arsenic (As), Cd, chromium (Cr), Pb, Hg, and selenium (Se) levels were examined in muscle and liver of 142 Pacific Cod (Gadus macrocephalus) collected in 2004 at Nikolski, Adak, Amchitka, and Kiska Islands in the Aleutian Chain (Alaska) in the Bering Sea/North Pacific Ocean, a major source of commercial fishing. One key objective was whether there were location, age, gender, and size effects on tissue concentration that might pose a risk to the fish or their predators (including humans). All fish were measured and weighed, and a subset was aged by examining otolith layers. As was higher in liver than in muscle (geometric mean 2420 versus 1590 ng/g or ppb wet weight), as were Cd (GM 224 versus 1.92) and Se (GM 1380 versus 165). Conversely, Cr was higher in muscle (76.8 versus 45 ppb), as were Pb (23.7 vs 12 ppb) and surprisingly Hg (128 versus 82 ppb). Adak, until recently a large military base, had the highest levels of As, Hg, and Se, while Amchitka had the highest Pb levels, but Nikolski, which generally had the lowest levels, had relatively high Pb in liver. In general, interisland differences were significant for most metals in muscle, but only for Cr in liver. Weight and length were positively related to age, but age tended to explain more of the variance in metal levels. The multiple regression relationships differed by tissue in an unanticipated manner. Location contributed significantly to the models for muscle Cd, Pb, Hg, and Se, but not for liver levels. Conversely the length by weight interaction entered all of the liver models but none of the muscle models. Se and Hg were positively but weakly correlated in both liver (tau = +0.16) and muscle tissue (tau = 0.12). Hg was positively correlated with length, weight, and age in muscle, but not in liver. As showed a significant negative correlation with size variable in both tissues, and Cr was negatively correlated in muscle. Cd was positively correlated with Hg, Se, and As. Between liver and muscle there were significant positive correlations for Hg (tau = .24), As (tau = .407), and Cr (tau = 0.17), but not for Pb, Cd, or Se. In this study, the only metals that might pose a risk to cod-eating predators is Hg, as well as some of the higher values of Pb at Amchitka and Nikolski . The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) reference dose (RfD) (not available for lead) was used to evaluate the risk to people consuming an 8-ounce (228g) meal of cod once per day and once per week, and to calculate risk using the levels found in this study. If a subsistence fisher from one of the Aleut villages ate one meal of cod per week for As, or one meal per day for Hg, they would exceed the U.S. EPA reference dose for As and Hg (set at a level to be without adverse effect for any person with this average daily exposure).

METAL LEVELS IN RACCOON TISSUES: DIFFERENCES ON AND OFF THE DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY'S SAVANNAH RIVER SITE IN SOUTH CAROLINA

Levels of arsenic, cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, manganese, selenium, and strontium88 were examined in heart, kidney, muscle, spleen and liver of raccoons (Procyon lotor) from four areas on the Department of Energys Savannah River Site (SRS), including near a former reactor cooling reservoir and a coal ash basin, and from public hunting areas within 15 km of the site. Mercury is mentioned briefly because it is discussed more fully in another paper. We test the hypotheses that there are no differences in metal levels between raccoons on SRS and off the SRS (off-site), and among different locations on the SRS. Although raccoons collected off-site had significantly lower levels of mercury and selenium in both the liver and kidney, there were few consistencies otherwise. There were significantly higher levels of cadmium in liver of on-site compared to off-site raccoons, and significantly higher levels of chromium and strontium88 in kidney of on-site compared to off-site raccoons. Copper and manganese were highest in the liver; cadmium, lead, mercury and selenium were highest in the liver and kidney; chromium was highest in the spleen and muscle; arsenic was highest in the heart, and strontium88 was slightly higher in the kidney than other organs. Where there were significant differences on site, chromium, manganese were highest in raccoon tissues from Steel Creek; arsenic, lead and selenium were highest in the Ash Basin; cadmium was highest at Upper Three Runs; and strontium88 was highest at Upper Three Runs and Steel Creek. The patterns were far from consistent.

Metals in feathers of sooty tern, white tern, gray-backed tern, and brown noddy from islands in the North Pacific.

Levels of heavy metals are usuallyhigher in adult than young birds because they eatlarger, more contaminated prey, or because they havehad longer to accumulate metals in their tissues.Further, levels of contaminants are usually less inbirds nesting on remote, offshore islands than inbirds breeding closer to mainland areas that areurbanized and industrialized. We examined the featherlevels of arsenic, cadmium, chromium, lead, manganese,mercury, and selenium in adult sooty terns (Sterna fuscata), gray-backed terns (Sterna lunata), and brown noddy (Anous stolidus, and adult and young white terns (Gygis alba, fromMidway Atoll, and in adult and young sooty terns andadult brown noddy from Manana Island, Hawaii (chicksof other terns were not available). We tested andrejected the null hypotheses that metal levels are notsignificantly different among species, ages, andlocations. Despite their small size, adult white ternshad the highest levels of lead, arsenic and tin. Brownnoddies had the highest levels of cadmium, chromium,manganese, and selenium. Sooty and white terns had thehighest levels of mercury. Sooty tern adults hadsignificantly higher levels of cadmium, mercury, andselenium than young, while young had significantlyhigher levels of arsenic and manganese. White ternadults had significantly higher levels of selenium andtin than young, while young had higher levels ofcadmium and mercury than adults. Except for mercury,there were significant inter-location differenceswithin species in all heavy metals. Contrary toexpectation, where the differences were great, metalsgenerally were higher in the feathers of terns andnoddies from Midway than from Manana.

Habitat use in basking Northern water (Nerodia sipedon) and Eastern garter (Thamnophis sirtalis) snakes in urban New Jersey

The habitat use of basking northern water (Nerodia sipedon) and Eastern garter (Thamnophis sirtalis) snakes was examined along the Raritan Canal, an urbanized area of central New Jersey. There were significant differences between the two species with respect to cloud cover, canopy cover, and the distance to the path and the water, but not with respect to percent of the body exposed to the sun, and percent of the snake that was visible. Water snakes were more likely to bask on bushes, branches and logs than were garter snakes. Garter snakes basked when both the air and water temperature were lower than did water snakes. The lack of basking sites in the water suggests that those along shore are important, including the low hanging branches used by the watersnakes.

Factors affecting mercury and selenium levels in New Jersey flatfish: low risk to human consumers.

Some fish contain high levels of mercury (Hg), which could pose a risk to fish eaters themselves or their children. In making decisions about fish consumption, people must decide whether to eat fish, how much to eat, what species to eat, and what size fish to eat, as well as suitable (or unsuitable) locations, among other factors. Yet to make sound decisions, people need to know the levels of Hg in fish as a function of species, size, and location of capture. Levels of Hg and selenium (Se) were examined in three species of flatfish (fluke or summer flounder [Paralichthys dentatus], winter flounder [Pseudopleuronectes americanus], and windowpane [Scophthalmus aquosus]) from New Jersey as a function of species, fish size, season, and location. Flatfish were postulated to have low levels of Hg because they are low on the food chain and are bottom feeders, and data were generated to provide individuals with information on a species that might be safe to eat regularly. Although there were interspecific differences in Hg levels in the 3 species, total Hg levels averaged 0.18, 0.14, and 0.06 ppm (μg/g, wet weigh) in windowpane, fluke, and winter flounder, and selenium levels averaged 0.36, 0.35, and 0.25 ppm, respectively. For windowpane, 15% had Hg levels above 0.3 ppm, but no individual fish had Hg levels over 0.5 ppm. There were no significant seasonal differences in Hg levels, although Se was significantly higher in fluke in summer compared to spring. There were few geographical differences among New Jersey locations. Correlations between Hg and Se levels were low. Data, based on 464 fish samples, indicate that Hg levels are below various advisory levels and pose little risk to typical New Jersey fish consumers. A 70-kg person eating 1 meal (8 oz or 227 g) per week would not exceed the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency reference dose of 0.1 μg/kg body weight/d of methylmercury (MeHg). However, high-end fish eaters consuming several such meals per week may exceed recommended levels.

Perceptual indicators of environmental health, future land use, and stewardship.

There are important linkages between the health of humans and theenvironment, restoration of degraded lands, and long-term stewardship of public lands, yet most environmental indicators deal only with assessing the physical and biological aspects ofecosystems. In this article, we examine the ratings of perceptionsof several environmental problems for their utility as indicatorsof environmental quality, and examine perceptions of future land use by people interviewed in Santa Fe, New Mexico, near the Department of Energys (DOE) Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL). Overall, people with lower incomes rated environmental problems as more severe than others, were more willing to spend federal funds to solve them, and were consistent in their ratingsof severity of environmental problems and their willingness to spend federal funds. Cleaning up LANL and other Department of Energy sites, received the highest rating for expenditure of federal funds. The highest rated future uses for DOE sites were for recreation and for National Environmental Research Parks. People with less education generally gave higher ratings to mostfuture land uses for DOE than did those with more education. However, those with higher education gave higher ratings to nuclear reprocessing, and nuclear material storage. Where there were differences, the people interviewed at Santa Fe rated all environmental problems (except pesticides) as more severe than did those previously interviewed in Albuquerque (located fartherfrom the LANL site), and they were more willing to spend federalfunds on these problems. Ratings for all future land uses did notdiffer between the Santa Fe and Albuquerque respondents. These perception-based indicators show general agreement among peopleliving close and farther away from LANL with respect to cleaningup LANL and the future land uses for the site. These indicators should be considered by regulators, site personnel, and policy makers in future management and land use decisions.

Fish consumption: efficacy among fishermen of a brochure developed for pregnant women

The risk to human consumers from contaminants in fish is often dealt with by issuing consumption advisories, or in some cases, information brochures. Normally advisories and brochures are developed and tested with anglers. We examine the efficacy of a fish consumption brochure that was developed for pregnant women on people engaged in fishing in the Newark Bay Complex. The brochures were in English and Spanish, and subjects could read and be interviewed in either language. Of the 151 people interviewed, 32% were women, 58% spoke only English, 22% spoke mainly Spanish and the rest felt comfortable with both languages. There were no differences in the percent that were present as a function of preferred language. There were significant differences in the understanding of the brochure, depending upon preferred language (and the language of the brochure). In general, anglers preferring Spanish and who read the brochure in Spanish obtained fewer of the messages correctly than those who preferred English (seven of seven questions). There were also gender differences in efficacy of the brochures; a higher percentage of female anglers thought that the fish were not safe to eat from the port and thought that eating contaminated fish from the port could harm their baby. Although the correct message was obtained by 34–100% of the anglers, depending upon the question, and 60–75% of the anglers believed the pamphlet, only 16% (Spanish‐speaking) to 47% (Bilingual) planned on changing the species of fish they eat or the method of cooking. These data suggest that a pamphlet designed for pregnant women is useful for anglers, and they can obtain the ‘correct’ message from it. However, a relatively small percentage of subjects were persuaded to change their cooking or consumption behavior. In addition to television, subjects felt that the direct approach of distributing brochures face‐to‐face was an important method of communication of fish consumers.

Exposure of South Carolinians to commercial meats and fish within their meat and fish diet

There has been considerable interest in the publics exposure to a variety of contaminants through the consumption of wild fish and game, yet there is little information on consumption of commercial meats and fish, or the relationship between commercial and self-caught fish. We conducted a dietary survey in 1999 to estimate exposure levels of 464 individuals from people attending the Palmetto Sportsmens Classic. Mean consumption was similar for beef, chicken/turkey, and wild-caught fish, and much lower for pork and store-bought fish, and still lower for restaurant fish. There were no ethnic differences in the consumption of most commercial fish and meats, although the differences for chicken approached significance. There were significant ethnic differences in consumption of wild-caught fish. Women ate significantly less of all meat types, except store-bought fish. People over 45 ate less beef than younger people, and people younger than 32 ate significantly more chicken than others. There were no significant differences in consumption patterns as a function of income, except for chicken and wild-caught fish; people with higher incomes ate more chicken than others, and people with lower incomes ate more wild-caught fish than others. When all wild-caught and commercial fish and meats are considered, there are significant differences only for ethnicity and gender. Blacks consume significantly more fish than Whites, and men consume significantly more than women.

Pollution, Contamination and Future Land Use at Brookhaven National Laboratory

Scientists interested in contamination normally deal only with pollution itself, not with people’s perceptions of pollution or the relationship between pollution and land use. The overall objective of this article was to examine the relationship between people’s perceptions of pollution and their views on future land use. People were interviewed at an Earth Day Festival near the Department of Energy’s Brookhaven National Laboratory (BNL) on Long Island, New York. On an open-ended question, people thought that BNL should be left as it is, or maintained as a preserve, park or conservation area, or used for environmental research. Almost no one thought that it should be used for housing or industrial purposes. When asked to rate a list of possible future land uses, maintaining BNL as a National Environmental Research Park for research and for recreation were rated the highest (nuclear storage was rated the lowest). This was consistent with the subjects’ views that pollution was the greatest concern about BNL. The congruence between perceptions about concerns or problems and future land use preferences suggests a unified view of management of contaminated sites, such as BNL, at least among a group of people whose environmental interests were evident by their presence at the event.