Sheri R. Levy

Static Versus Dynamic Theories and the Perception of Groups: Different Routes to Different Destinations

Research on lay theories suggests that people who begin the task of social perception with different starting assumptions follow different cognitive paths and reach different social endpoints. In this article, we show how laypeoples fixed (entity) versus dynamic (incremental) theories of human nature foster different meaning systems for interpreting and respondingto the same group information. Using research with adults and children, in the United States and East Asia, and concerning familiar and novel groups, wedocument how these theories influence susceptibility to stereotyping, perceptions of group homogeneity, the ultimate attribution error, intergroup bias,and discriminatory behavior. Further, we discuss social-cultural factors that produce and perpetuate these theories as well as why and when these theories are maintained and changed. The implications of this work for reducing stereotyping and intergroup conflict are considered.

The Contribution of the Lay Theories Approach to the Study of Groups

This special issue highlights the contribution of the lay theories approach to the study of groups. Six articles address the nature, development, and consequences of a variety of lay theories for group perception and behavior. First, these articles illuminate the structural, functional, and dynamic properties of lay theories as well as their scope. Second, the articles address the development of lay theories from diverse theoretical perspectives, including evolutionary, cognitive, developmental, and sociocultural learning. Third, each article documents the consequences of different lay theories for understanding group inferences and judgments. Taken together, these articles propose theoretical extensions of the lay theories approach and suggest practical implications of the lay theories approach for reducing prejudice.

Construing action abstractly and blurring social distinctions: implications for perceiving homogeneity among, but also empathizing with and helping, others.

Most peoples actions serve goals that, defined abstractly enough, are quite similar to one another. The authors thus proposed, and found, that construing action in abstract (vs. concrete) terms relates to perceiving greater similarity among persons both within and across different social groups (Studies 1-3). By fostering perspective taking, viewing action abstractly also related to empathizing with and expressing willingness to help nonstigmatized and stigmatized others (e.g., AIDS patients; Studies 3-5) and to donating money to help those in need (Study 6). These findings held when controlling for ideological, motivational, and broad personality variables. Abstract action construals, then, appear to blur social distinctions, fostering perspective taking and empathy on the one hand but also perceptions of group homogeneity on the other.

Understanding Women's Risk for HIV Infection Using Social Dominance Theory and the Four Bases of Gendered Power

Theoretical models to date have fallen short of accounting for the alarming worldwide rates of HIV infection in women through heterosexual contact. In this article, social dominance theory and the four bases of gendered power—force, resource control, social obligations, and consensual ideologies—are used to organize and explain international research findings on womens risk of contracting HIV from male sexual partners. Research suggests that the four bases of gendered power contribute to women having less power than men in heterosexual relationships, resulting in challenges to preventing HIV transmission from male partners. Social dominance theory also recognizes the intersections among various group-based hierarchies, such as race and class, thereby helping explain why women of color and low-income women are disproportionately affected by HIV. The intergroup focus of social dominance theory points to gender inequality as increasing mens risk of HIV infection as well, and the construct of social dominance orientation helps to explain individual differences in HIV risk behavior. We discuss the ways the current theoretical framework can prove useful in helping to guide future research addressing the connections between power and HIV risk, including exploring mediators and links to other theoretical models. We also discuss the implications the framework has for intervention efforts aimed at reducing HIV rates worldwide, such as supporting efforts at increasing womens representation in hierarchy-enhancing positions, incorporating empowerment issues into current interventions, promoting use of female condoms, and targeting heterosexual men for interventions.

Reducing Prejudice: Lessons From Social-Cognitive Factors Underlying Perceiver Differences in Prejudice

This article describes research findings on individual differences in stereotyping and shows how these findings have been and can be further applied to prejudice reduction efforts. A notable strength of this “new” generation of individual difference work is its dynamic nature—that individual differences can be both stable and malleable. The first section of this article reviews work showing that both adults and children differ in social-cognitive factors related to stereotyping, namely the way they process social information and their endorsement of social ideologies. The second section describes intervention strategies that target these factors. In the final section, limitations and future directions of basic and applied research on individual differences and stereotyping are discussed.

The Relation Between Polyculturalism and Intergroup Attitudes Among Racially and Ethnically Diverse Adults

Research on intergroup ideologies (colorblindness, multiculturalism) has increased our understanding of intergroup attitudes. This article reports empirical tests of the relation between a newly studied ideology, polyculturalism (ideology focusing on interactions and connections among racial/ethnic groups), and intergroup attitudes. Across four studies (with racially/ethnically diverse U.S. undergraduates, and Black and White American adults), greater endorsement of polyculturalism was related to greater equality beliefs; appreciation for and comfort with diversity; willingness for intergroup contact; and endorsement of liberal immigration and affirmative action policies. Polyculturalism explained unique variance after controlling for colorblindness, multiculturalism, assimilation ideology, social dominance orientation, and right-wing authoritarianism. Implications and future directions of studying polyculturalism are discussed.

The Influences of Perceived Identity Compatibility and Social Support on Women in Nontraditional Fields During the College Transition

Research suggests the need to examine theoretically founded psychosocial factors influencing the underrepresentation of women in science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM). In a longitudinal and daily diary study during womens transition to undergraduate education, greater perceived identity compatibility and perceived social support during womens first 3 weeks of college predicted greater sense of belonging, motivation, and less insecurity in STEM disciplines. In addition, identity compatibility and support on a given day corresponded to motivation and sense of belonging on subsequent days. One semester later, cross-sectional data revealed that both factors predicted lower expectations of women dropping out of their STEM major.

Polyculturalism and openness about criticizing one’s culture: Implications for sexual prejudice

Abundant research on the relationship between ideologies and sexual prejudice has not focused on intergroup ideologies such as colorblindness, multiculturalism, and polyculturalism. In three studies with racially and ethnically diverse college and community samples, endorsement of polyculturalism—an ideology focusing on the interactions, influences, and connections among racial and ethnic groups—was associated with lower sexual prejudice (as measured by affective prejudice toward gay men and lesbians, traditional heterosexism, denial of discrimination against homosexuals, and attitudes toward gay men and lesbians). Polyculturalism’s relationship with lower sexual prejudice was mediated by greater openness to criticizing elements of one’s culture that marginalize some groups. Polyculturalism accounted for unique variance in sexual prejudice even when controlling for colorblindness, multiculturalism, social dominance orientation, ethnic identity, conservatism, as well as race and gender. Colorblindness and multiculturalism were not consistently related to lower sexual prejudice. Future work on intergroup ideologies and sexual prejudice is discussed.

Introduction: Extending the conversation: Transdisciplinary approaches to social identity and intergroup attitudes in children and adolescents

Ali, then 14, and his younger brother fled Afghanistan after their parents were arrested and killed by the Taliban. They found refuge with a friend in Iran, but the anti-Afghan prejudice they encountered made them embark on their journey to the UK at the hands of people-smugglers. (The Guardian, London, 15th June 2007).

Polyculturalism and Sexist Attitudes: Believing Cultures are Dynamic Relates to Lower Sexism

In cultural contexts in which sexist beliefs are considered traditional, shifts toward gender equality represent an example of cultural change. Polyculturalism is defined as the belief that cultures change constantly through different racial and ethnic groups’ interactions, influences, and exchanges with each other and, therefore, are dynamic and socially constructed rather than static. Thus, polyculturalism may involve openness to cultural change and, thereby, would be expected to be associated with lower sexist attitudes. Four studies (both cross-sectional and longitudinal) with undergraduate and community samples in the Northeastern United States tested whether endorsement of polyculturalism is inversely associated with sexism, above and beyond potentially confounding belief systems. Across studies, for both women and men, endorsement of polyculturalism was associated with lower sexist attitudes for two classes of sexism measures: (a) attitudes toward the rights and roles of women and (b) ambivalent sexist attitudes toward women. Associations remained significant while controlling for potentially confounding variables (colorblindness, conservatism, egalitarianism, gender and ethnic identity, gender and race essentialism, multiculturalism, right-wing authoritarianism, and social dominance orientation). Greater openness to criticizing one’s culture mediated polyculturalism’s association with attitudes toward the rights and roles of women but not with ambivalent sexist attitudes toward women. Studying polyculturalism may provide unique insights into sexism, and more work is needed to understand the mechanisms involved.