Shiming Luo

Mitochondria: One of the origins for autophagosomal membranes?

Macroautophagy is a transport pathway to the lysosome/vacuole that contributes to the degradation of numerous intracellular components. Despite the recent advances achieved in the understanding of the molecular mechanism underlying macroautophagy, the membrane origin of autophagosomes, the hallmark of this process is still a mystery. It has been suggested that mitochondria may be one of the lipid sources for autophagosome formation and that possibly this organelle provides the phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) that covalently links to the members of the ubiquitin-like Atg8/microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3 (LC3) protein family. These lipidated proteins are inserted into the outer and inner surface of autophagosomes and are essential for the biogenesis of these large double-membrane vesicles. However, because PE is an integral component of all cellular membranes, designing appropriate experiments to determine the origin of the autophagosomal PE is not easy. In this review, we discuss the idea that mitochondria provide the pool of PE necessary for the autophagosome biogenesis and we propose some possible experimental approaches aimed to explore this possibility.

Feasibility of Using Fluoresceinyl Cypridina Luciferin Analog in a Novel Chemiluminescence Method for Real-time Photodynamic Therapy Dosimetry

Abstract Singlet oxygen (1O2) is the most important cytotoxic agent in photodynamic therapy (PDT). The feasibility of using a chemiluminescence (CL) probe, 3,7-dihydro-6-[4-(2-(N′-(5-fluoresceinyl)thioureido)ethoxy)phenyl]-2-methylimidazo{1,2-a}pyrazin-3-one sodium salt (fluoresceinyl Cypridina luciferin analog, FCLA), to monitor 1O2 production during PDT is evaluated in vitro. Lymphoma cells were treated with various protocols of PDT. The results show that the FCLA-CL production during PDT is linearly related to the corresponding cytotoxicity, regardless of the treatment protocol. With minimum cytotoxicity and interference to the PDT treatment outcome, the FCLA-CL system is an effective means to quantify PDT 1O2 production and may provide an alternative real-time dosimeter.

Inhibitive effects of Photofrin on cellular autophagy

Depending on the circumstances, autophagy can be either a protective or damaging cellular process. The role of autophagy in photodynamic therapy (PDT), a photo‐chemotherapy that utilizes light to activate a photosensitizer drug to achieve localized cellular damage, has been explored in recent years. It has been reported that autophagy in PDT is significantly influenced by the treatment protocol. In this work, the role of Photofrin, a well‐established clinical photosensitizer, in regulating cellular autophagy was investigated. The effects of Photofrin on cellular autophagy induced by conventional starvation or rapamycin techniques were studied. By fluorescence imaging, Western blotting and cell viability assays, it was found that Photofrin can effectively inhibit cellular autophagy induced by starvation or rapamycin. This autophagy blocking is independent of the photosensitizing property of the drug. With Baf‐A1, a well‐established agent that inhibits autophagosome from fusing with lysosome, we also found that, the observed phenomenon is not due to accelerated degradation of existing autophagosomes, thus proving that the drug Photofrin alone, without light excitation, can truly block autophagy. J. Cell. Physiol. 224: 414–422, 2010.

Monitoring singlet oxygen in situ with delayed chemiluminescence to deduce the effect of photodynamic therapy

Singlet oxygen ((1)O(2)) is an important factor mediating cell killing in photodynamic therapy (PDT). We previously reported that chemiluminescence (CL) can be used to detect (1)O(2) production in PDT and linked the signal to the PDT-induced cytotoxicity in vitro. We develop a new CL detection apparatus to achieve in vivo measurements. The system utilizes a time-delayed CL signal to overcome the interference from scattered excitation light, thus greatly improving the accuracy of the detection. The system is tested on healthy skin of BALB/ca mouse for its feasibility and reliability. The CL measurement is made during a synchronized gating period of the irradiation light. After each PDT treatment and in situ CL measurement, the skin response is scored over a period of 2 weeks. A remarkable relationship is observed between the score and the CL, regardless of the PDT treatment protocol. Although there are many issues yet to be addressed, our results clearly demonstrate the feasibility of CL measurement during PDT and its potential for in vivo PDT dosimetry. This requires further investigations.

Quantitative measurement of reactive oxygen species in vivo by utilizing a novel method: chemiluminescence with an internal fluorescence as reference

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) produced by photodynamic therapy (PDT) is recorded in vivo using a chemiluminescence (CL)-based gated optical system. A novel approach is developed to utilize the fluorescence (FL) of the CL probe as an internal fluorescence to calibrate the observed CL on pharmacokinetics of the probe in situ. The results show that during an in vivo PDT session, the intensity of CL decreases significantly and the decaying of CL is governed by fast and slow time components. By comparing the temporal profile of FL to that of the corresponding CL, it is found that the slow component is mainly attributed to the probe pharmacokinetics, whereas the fast component is likely due to rapid oxygen consumption as a result of PDT treatment. With carefully selected criteria, it is possible to minimize the effect of probe pharmacokinetics. This significantly improves the monitoring method for practical applications.

Quantification of Human Serum Albumin by Highly Sensitive Chemiluminescence Method

An efficient and highly sensitive chemiluminescence (CL) technique has been developed to detect human serum albumin (HSA). We have previously reported that chemiluminescence produced during interaction between FCLA-1O2 could be modified by the addition of HSA. By carefully selecting the condition of the reaction, the CL intensity could show a linear relationship to the HSA concentration over a clinically interested range of 5times10-9 ~ 8times10-8 mol L-1 ,with a detection limit of 17.32 ng/ml. The method is low cost and has a higher sensitivity than that of fluorescence spectra analysis, synchrony fluorescence scanning technique, and Rayleigh light scattering technique. The technique was used to test HSA in human urine obtained clinically, and the results were consistent to that from other conventional methods. The mechanism of the technique is discussed.

Feasibility of chemiluminescence as photodynamic therapy dosimetor

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) utilizes light energy of a proper wavelength to activate a pre-administered photosensitizer in a target tissue to achieve a localized treatment effect. Current treatment protocol of photodynamic therapy (PDT) is defined by empirical values such as irradiation light fluence, fluence rate and the amount of administered photosensitizer. It is well known that Singlet oxygen is the most important cytotoxic agent responsible for PDT biological effects. An in situ monitoring of singlet oxygen production during PDT would provide a more accurate dosimeter for PDT. The presented study has investigated the feasibility of using Fhioresceinyl Cypridina Luciferin Analog (FCLA), a singlet oxygen specific chemiluminescence (CL) probe, as a dosimetric tool for PDT. Raji lymphoma cell suspensions were sensitized with Photofrin(R) of various concentrations and irradiated with 635 nm laser light at different fluence rates. FCLA-CL from singlet oxygen produced by the treatment was measured, in real time, with a photon multiplier tube (PMT) system, and linked to the cytotoxicity resulting from the treatment. We have observed that the CL intensity of FCLA is dependent on the PDT treatment parameters. After each PDT treatment and CL measurement, the irradiated cells were evaluated by MIT assay for their Viability. The results show that the cell viability is highly related to the accumulated CL. With 102 quencher, we confirmed that the CL was mainly related to PDT produced 102 The results suggest that the FCLA-CL system can be an effective means in measuring PDT 1O2 production and may provide an alternative dosimetry technique for PDT.

Application of chemiluminescence with FCLA in photodynamic therapy

In photodynamic therapy (PDT), a target tissue with pre-administered photosensitizer is exposed to laser light. The photochemical process produces reaction oxygen species (ROS), such as singlet oxygen and superoxide, and leads to ultimate cell death. A direct monitoring of ROS production during PDT, thus, may provide important information in both basic science and clinical practice. A cypridina luciferin analogue (FCLA) is a chemiluminescence (CL) probe that selectively detects singlet oxygen and superoxide. In this study, FCLA was used as an optical reporter of ROS produced by photosensitization reaction of Photofrin in Hanks solution and the CL was measured by a photomultiplier system operated at single photon counting mode. By varying the amount of PDT dosage (photosensitizer dose, light irradiation fluence rate) and the amount of FCLA, the intensity of CL were investigated. The results showed the FCLA concentration affects the ratio of the signal to background CL. The decay time of the photosensitized CL was approximately 10 sec., after the excitation source was turned off. In addition, the intensity of the CL-FCLA increased with increasing concentration of Photofrin and fluence rate. The work supported the potential application of FCLA-chemiluminescence probe as a dosimetric tool for PDT.

Chemical luminescence measurement of singlet oxygen generated by photodynamic therapy in solutions in real time

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a cancer therapy that utilizes optical energy to activate a photosensitizer drug in a target tissue. Reactive oxygen species (ROS), such as 1O2 and superoxide, are believed to be the major cytotoxic agents involved in PDT. Although current PDT dosimetry mostly involves measurements of light and photosensitizer doses delivered to a patient, the quantification of ROS production during a treatment would be the ultimate dosimetry of PDT. Technically, it is very difficult and expensive to directly measure the fluorescence from 1O2, due to its extreme short lifetime and weak signal strength. In this paper, Photofrin(R) and 635nm laser were used to generate 1O2 and superoxide in a PDT in solution. Compound 3,7- dihydro-6-{4-[2-(N’-(5-fluoresceinyl) thioureido) ethoxy] phenyl}-2- methylimidazo{1,2-a} pyrazin-3-one sodium salt,an Cyp- ridina luciferin analog commonly referred as FCLA, was used as a chemical reporter of ROS. The 532nm chemiluminescence (CL) from the reaction of the FCLA and ROS was detected with a photon multiplier tube (PMT) system operating at single photon counting mode. With the setup, we have made detections of ROS generated by PDT in real time. By varying the amount of conventional PDT dosage (photosensitizer concentration, light irradiation fluence and its delivery rate) and the amount of FCLA, the intensity of CL and its consumption rate were investigated. The results show that the intensity and temporal profile of CL are highly related to the PDT treatment parameters. This suggests that FCLA CL may provide a highly potential alternative for ROS detection during PDT.

A novel CL system for PDT therapecitic dosimeter in vitro

It has been proved that singlet oxygen is the major cytotoxic agent in Photodynamic therapy (PDT). Chemiluminescence(CL) mediated with Cyp- ridina luciferin analog (FCLA) was recently reported to successfully detect singlet oxygen in chemical and biological systems. The present study has focused on establishing the experiment conditions of FCLA-assisted CL method and tested the validity of the system as a dosimetric tool for PDT in vitro. HL-60 leukemia cell suspensions were sensitized with varying dose of Photofrin and irradiated with 635nm laser light at different rate. The FCLA-CL associated with singlet oxygen was measured with a band-pass filtered photon multiplier tube (PMT) system. We have observed that the CL intensity of FCLA is dependent on PDT treatment parameters. In addition, Cell survival corresponded strongly with peak CL intensity. These results suggest that the FCLA-assisted CL system can be an effective means in in vitro PDT study as an indicator of reactive oxygen species. The system may as well, with additional investigations, provide an alternative dosimetry technique for PDT.