Shushu Chen

Evaluating the London 2012 Games’ impact on sport participation in a non-hosting region: a practical application of realist evaluation

In the literature on Olympic legacies and impacts, there is a dearth of materials that specifically address the issue of Olympic impact for non-hosting regions. The literature tends to deal with impacts at a national level, or at a hosting-city region level, neglecting in large part the degree to which benefits can be leveraged by non-hosting regions. A further limitation identified in the literature is a failure to engage in detailed formal evaluation of policy implementation where assertions of potential policy impact are based on untested assumptions. This study is intended to address both of these concerns. It presents an empirical, ‘bottom-up’ application of a Realist Evaluation framework to assess the impact of a policy initiative – Workplace Challenge – aimed at leveraging enhanced sports participation in a non-hosting region – Leicestershire – in the period leading up to the 2012 Games. In doing so, it seeks to identify which causal mechanisms worked within this particular context to produce the observed outcomes. The evaluation results demonstrate that the programme represented a positive approach to fostering regular engagement with sport and physical activities for some groups in some types of organisations, and that awareness and motivational factors associated with the London 2012 Games are, in this case, linked (albeit weakly) to an increase in sport and physical activity participation for specific groups taking part in the programme in particular organisational contexts.

Exploring China’s success at the Olympic Games: A competitive advantage approach

ABSTRACT Research question: Much research has been carried out to analyse factors contributing to Chinas notable success at the Olympic Games over the past decade. However, research which examines Chinas deliberate Olympic medal strategy remains relatively uncharted territory. Thus this paper seeks to address this gap and examines how China has become one of the most successful superpowers at the Summer Olympic Games within the last two decades by virtue of the application of the competitive advantage framework. Research methods: Seven semi-structured interviews were conducted with key stakeholders of elite sport in China. These data were supplemented by a range of official publications of sports governing bodies in China, their websites and related information from the websites of influential media. Results and findings: It is evidenced that Chinas current Olympic configuration and (gold) medal distribution among sports/disciplines are largely underpinned by Tian Maijius research on cluster-based sports training and the ‘Five-Word principle’ (i.e. Small, Fast, Women, Water and Agile). In addition, there is clear evidence of Chinas continuous expansion of its market and the ambition to greater success in gold-medal abundant and collective ball sports/disciplines. Implications: This article concludes by critically examining the key characteristics and outcomes of Chinas approach to clustering and prioritisation, attempting to provide some insights into the establishment or refinement of Olympic (gold) medal strategy for other nations, where China may provide some useful lessons. The compatibility of the competitive advantage framework with the analysis of Chinas Olympic success is also discussed.

Schools’ engagement with the Get Set London 2012 Olympic education programme: Empirical insights from schools in a non-hosting region

During the Olympiad, an Olympic host country is required to organise and deliver an education programme to schools nationwide. Schools’ experiences of engagement with such programmes are often reported on by the government rather than being rigorously examined by academics. Moreover, there is little scientific understanding of how individual schools facilitate the programmes and why different schools engage with the same programme in different ways and to varying degrees, and generate different levels of impact. Looking at the London 2012 Olympic education programme called Get Set, this original qualitative research was undertaken to explore local schools’ experiences of involvement with the programme in a non-hosting region, Leicestershire. The paper advocates the use of programme-theory-driven evaluations (in particular a realist evaluation approach) to assess programme implementation. The results provide explanations of how and why case study schools engage more effectively or less effectively with the programme. The results identify the missing links in the programme theory, highlighting the significance of contextual factors at individual school levels, and arguing for the adoption of tailored strategies for effective programme implementation.

Sport policy in China

Acknowledging China’s established status as a global sporting superpower, this is the first book to systematically investigate sport policy in that country. With a focus on sport development in the most recent three decades, Sport Policy in China explores a wide range of topics in Chinese sport, including elite sport development, professional sports, major sports events, sport for all, the political context within which sport is interiorised and the distinctive sporting status of Hong Kong. It examines the debates around policy, globalisation, diplomacy and soft power, as well as the significance of the principle of ‘one country, two systems’. With international appeal, this book is a valuable resource for students and researchers in the fields of sport policy, sport management, sport development and sport sociology.

Volunteering for sports mega events: a non-host region perspective

ABSTRACT Despite a plethora of studies focussing on sports mega event volunteering, little is known about volunteers who live outside of the host city. This exploratory research makes a novel contribution by focusing on a group of the London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games volunteers from a non-host region. Within this context, the study explores volunteers’ motives, the utility of using financial subsidies to support volunteering participation, and their attitudes towards post-event volunteering. Semi-structured interviews with twelve volunteers were conducted, accompanied by interviews with key local stakeholders. The findings suggest that Olympic-related factors and altruistic feelings were central motivations to volunteering. Some previous volunteering experiences increased confidence levels to volunteer at the Olympics. The financial scheme was perceived as an impetus further enhancing Leicestershire residents’ confidence to volunteer. Programme participants also indicated positive attitudes towards future volunteering intentions.

Sport policy in China (Mainland)

ABSTRACT Sport has been an integral part of the Chinese government’s policy agenda since the People’s Republic of China was founded in 1949. The policy prominence of sport has been further elevated in the last two to three decades, as indicated by the steady increase in elite sport success, the hosting of sports events such as the Olympic Games, China’s increased global engagement with sport organisations and the developments in sport professionalisation and commercialisation. This article reviews China’s sport policy at different periods since its inception, analyses the rationale for, and form and extent of, government intervention, presents the sport structure in China and identifies the dominant characteristics of its sport policy. In addition, various sport policy areas, ranging from elite sport and mass sport to sports mega-events, and sports professionalisation are discussed, and their relative policy significances are compared. The degree of balance between these areas and policy priorities are thus defined. Finally, emerging trends and issues are introduced.

Sport policy evaluation: what do we know and how might we move forward?

ABSTRACT Evaluation, a product of the movement for evidence-based policy, is a key step in policy cycles. However, many studies existing in sport policy literature have failed to address underpinning methodologies in a rigorous manner and to provide justification for the use of certain measures handpicked by evaluators. As yet, no study has explicitly reflected on the value of evaluation or has systematically discussed how mainstream evaluation theories have been used in sport policy studies. Such articulation is necessary in order to provide researchers with additional resources for making informed and strategic methodological choices and to ensure the quality of their analysis. Thus, this article discusses the development of evaluation in general and examines the existing literature on sport policy evaluation. It then goes on to outline four especially noteworthy public policy evaluation frameworks: experimental design, constructivist evaluation, utilisation-focused evaluation and realist evaluation. Next, it uses a specific example to highlight the strengths of realist evaluation as a tool for unpacking additionality and understanding the logic of theory. In conclusion, the article suggests using theory-based evaluation frameworks (specifically, realist evaluation) to inform sport policy failure or success for future sport evaluation research.

‘It’s not doable!’ Exploring physical education teachers’ perspectives on the policy change of sport and physical education in Chinese universities

ABSTRACT In China, a decline in adolescents’ physical fitness plus increased risks of chronic disease and obesity have led to recent policy changes in sport and physical education (PE) within the contexts of schools and universities. Although there has been increased research interest in issues related to youth sport and school sport, few studies focus on the university context. There is remarkably little bottom-up study examining how universities react to macro level policies in particular. Using case-study approaches, our research aims to explore PE teachers’ perceptions regarding the roles of sport and the fitness test programme for university students along with these staff members’ reactions to and perspectives on recent national policy changes. Guided by a theoretical framework for education policy analysis, the empirical section of this paper uses a series of interviews conducted with a range of senior sport staff members and PE teachers from the sport departments of four case-study universities in Tianjin, China. The paper reveals that the role and value of sport has indeed been upgraded against the background of a serious policy change at the national level; but variations are also apparent in the implementation of the policies at university level, with these variations affected by individual interests and perspectives and by universities’ contextual constraints. The paper ends with an analysis of the implications associated with micro level policy analysis for university sport development in China.