Sigrid Mildenberger

Inhibition of Na+−H+ exchange impairs receptor-mediated albumin endocytosis in renal proximal tubule-derived epithelial cells from opossum

1 Receptor‐mediated endocytosis is an important mechanism for transport of macromolecules and regulation of cell‐surface receptor expression. In renal proximal tubules, receptor‐mediated endocytosis mediates the reabsorption of filtered albumin. Acidification of the endocytic compartments is essential because it interferes with ligand‐receptor dissociation, vesicle trafficking, fusion events and coat formation. 2 Here we show that the activity of Na+‐H+ exchanger isoform 3 (NHE3) is important for proper receptor‐mediated endocytosis of albumin and endosomal pH homeostasis in a renal proximal tubular cell line (opossum kidney cells) which expresses NHE3 only. 3 Depending on their inhibitory potency with respect to NHE3 and their lipophilicity, the NHE inhibitors EIPA, amiloride and HOE694 differentially reduced albumin endocytosis. The hydrophilic inhibitor HOE642 had no effect. 4 Inhibition of NHE3 led to an alkalinization of early endosomes and to an acidification of the cytoplasm, indicating that Na+‐H+ exchange contributes to the acidification of the early endosomal compartment due to the existence of a sufficient Na+ gradient across the endosomal membrane. 5 Exclusive acidification of the cytoplasm with propionic acid or by removal of Na+ induced a significantly smaller reduction in endocytosis than that induced by inhibition of Na+‐H+ exchange. 6 Analysis of the inhibitory profiles indicates that in early endosomes and endocytic vesicles NHE3 is of major importance, whereas plasma membrane NHE3 plays a minor role. 7 Thus, NHE3‐mediated acidification along the first part of the endocytic pathway plays an important role in receptor‐mediated endocytosis. Furthermore, the involvement of NHE3 offers new ways to explain the regulation of receptor‐mediated endocytosis.

Aldosterone Stimulates Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor Expression

The steroid hormone aldosterone plays an important role during pathological tissue modifications, similar to cardiovascular or renal fibrosis. The underlying mechanisms for the pathological actions are not understood. Interaction of aldosterone with the epidermal growth factor (EGF) receptor is an attractive hypothesis to explain pathological tissue remodeling elicited by aldosterone, because (i) mineralocorticoids can sensitize cells for EGF, (ii) mineralocorticoid receptor (MR)-antagonists reduce EGFR-mRNA expression, (iii) EGFR itself supports the development of cardiovascular or renal fibrosis, and (iv) signaling elements involved in the pathological action of aldosterone (similar to ERK1/2 or NFkB) are typical downstream modules during EGF signaling. In addition, an interaction of aldosterone and EGF with respect to ERK1/2 activation has been described. Here we show that aldosterone stimulates EGFR expression in renal tissue of adrenalectomized rats and in human renal primary cell cultures. Furthermore, Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells normally devoid of EGFR or MR express EGFR after transfection with human MR (CHO-MR cells) but not after transfection with human glucocorticoid receptor (CHO-GR cells). In CHO-MR cells, EGFR-expression is up-regulated by aldosterone and inhibited by spironolactone. CHO-MR cells but not CHO-GR cells respond with ERK1/2 phosphorylation to EGF exposure. The responsiveness to other peptide hormones was virtually not affected. These data suggest that EGFR is an aldosterone-induced protein and is involved in the manifold (patho)biological actions of aldosterone.

Transforming growth factor‐β1 reduces megalin‐ and cubilin‐mediated endocytosis of albumin in proximal‐tubule‐derived opossum kidney cells

Transforming growth factor (TGF)‐β1 is a member of a superfamily of multifunctional cytokines involved in several pathological processes of the kidney, including fibrogenesis, apoptosis and epithelial‐mesenchymal transition. These events lead to tubulointerstitial fibrosis and glomerulosclerosis. Less is known about TGF‐β1‐induced alterations of cell function. An important function of proximal tubular cells is reabsorption of filtered proteins, including albumin, via megalin‐cubilin‐dependent receptor‐mediated endocytosis. In this study we used a well established cell culture model (proximal‐tubule‐derived opossum kidney (OK) cells) in order to test the hypothesis that TGF‐β1 reduces megalin‐cubilin‐mediated endocytosis. Previously we have shown that albumin endocytosis in OK cells is mediated by megalin/cubulin. TGF‐β1 led to a time‐ and dose‐dependent downregulation of megalin‐cubilin‐mediated endocytosis without affecting two other transport systems tested. Binding, internalization and intracellular trafficking of the ligand albumin were affected. Decreased binding resulted from reduced cubilin and megalin expression in the 200 000 g membrane fraction. The underlying mechanism of TGF‐β1 action does not involve mitogen‐activated protein kinases, protein kinase C or A, or reactive oxygen species. In contrast, TGF‐β1‐induced downregulation of megalin‐cubilin‐mediated endocytosis was sensitive to inhibition of translation and transcription and was preceded by Smad2 and 3 phosphorylation. Dominant negative Smad2/3 constructs prevented the effect of TGF‐β1. In conclusion our data indicate that enhanced levels of TGF‐β1 occurring in various nephropathies can lead to downregulation of megalin‐cubilin‐dependent endocytosis. Probably, TGF‐β1 leads to Smad2‐ and Smad3‐dependent expression of negative regulators of receptor‐mediated endocytosis.

Inhibition of Na+—H+ exchanger-3 interferes with apical receptor-mediated endocytosis via vesicle fusion

1 Receptor‐mediated endocytosis in epithelial cells is a crucial mechanism for transport of macromolecules and regulation of cell‐surface protein expression. Na+‐H+ exchanger type 3 (NHE3) has been shown to cycle between the apical plasma membrane and the early endosomal compartment and to interfere with endocytosis. 2 In the present study we investigated in detail the NHE3‐dependent step of apical endocytosis in an epithelial cell line (opossum kidney cells). 3 Inhibition of NHE3 led to a rapid dose‐dependent inhibition of apical albumin endocytosis but did not affect basolateral transferrin endocytosis. Re‐exocytosis of albumin was not increased by NHE3 inhibition. 4 NHE3 dependency of albumin endocytosis was still observed at 20 °C or when microtubules had been disrupted. This was not the case for inhibition of vacuolar H+‐ATPase. 5 NHE3 inhibition rapidly blocked internalisation of pre‐bound albumin and attenuated degradation of internalised albumin without changing general protein degradation. 6 Furthermore, NHE3 inhibition reduced the rate of endocytic vesicle fusion significantly. 7 In summary, our data indicate that NHE3 is important for the early phase of the apical endocytic pathway, located between the plasma membrane and early endosomes, at least in part due to its involvement in endocytic vesicle fusion.

Receptor-mediated endocytosis of albumin in cultured opossum kidney cells: a model for proximal tubular protein reabsorption.

The accumulation of fluorescein(FITC)-labelled bovine albumin was measured against the extracellular-fluid-phase marker FITC-inulin within confluent monolayers of the opossum kidney cell line OK. Fluorescence and electron microscopic pictures show that FITC-albumin is taken up by endocytosis and appears in a vesicular intracellular distribution. The uptake of FITC-albumin was quantified by measuring the cell-adherent fluorescence fluorimetrically. FITC-albumin uptake shows a time- and concentration-dependent saturation kinetics in contrast to the non-saturable FITC-inulin uptake, and exceeds the latter more than tenfold at low concentrations. Half-maximum saturation occurs at 20–30mg/l. Initial FITC-albumin uptake/mg protein is stimulated by cell maturation, being six-to sevenfold higher in the confluent than in the subconfluent state, while FITC-inulin uptake is unchanged. Both an elevation of ambient osmolality to 600–750 mOsm/kg and disruption of the cytoskeleton by cytochalasin B (0.1 mmol/l) reduce initial FITC-albumin uptake by 50%–60% in a non-additive fashion. Albumin endocytosis is reduced both in acidic (pH 5.4) and alkaline (pH 8.4) medium, but does not depend on extracellular sodium, calcium or chloride. High concentrations of fetal calf serum or unlabelled albumin reduce FITC-albumin endocytosis dose-dependently. The present study is the first to investigate both the protein uptake and the fluid-phase endocytosis in a cultured proximal tubular cell line, using these cells as a model systemfor proximal tubular protein reabsorption.

EF Domains Are Sufficient for Nongenomic Mineralocorticoid Receptor Actions

The mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) is important for salt homeostasis and reno-cardiovascular pathophysiology. Signaling mechanisms include, besides classical genomic pathways, nongenomic pathways with putative pathophysiological relevance involving the mitogen-activated protein kinases ERK1/2. We determined the MR domains required for nongenomic signaling and their potential to elicit pathophysiological effects in cultured cells under defined conditions. The expression of full-length human MR or truncated MR consisting of the domains CDEF (MRCDEF), DEF (MRDEF), or EF (MREF) renders cells responsive for the MR ligand aldosterone with respect to nongenomic ERK1/2 phosphorylation, whereas only full-length MR and MRCDEF conferred genomic responsiveness. ERK1/2 phosphorylation depends on the EGF receptor and cSRC kinase. MREF expression is sufficient to evoke the aldosterone-induced increase of collagen III levels, similar to full-length MR expression. Our data suggest that nongenomic MR signaling is mediated by the EF domains and present the first proof of principle showing that nongenomic signaling can be sufficient for some pathophysiological effects. The minimum amino acid motif required for nongenomic MR signaling and its importance in various effects have yet to be determined.

Apical-to-basolateral transepithelial transport of Ochratoxin A by two subtypes of Madin-Darby canine kidney cells.

In this study we investigated the transepithelial transport of Ochratoxin A (OTA), a potent nephrotoxin, across monolayers of two collecting duct-derived cells clones (Madin-Darby canine kidney cells (MDCK)-C7 and MDCK-C11 cells, resembling principal and intercalated cells, respectively) either from the apical to the basolateral side or vice versa. We cultured cells on permeable supports and compared the transport rates of OTA, p-aminohippuric acid (PAH) and fluorescein-labelled inulin. Monolayers of both cell clones translocated OTA from the apical to the basolateral side but not in the opposite direction. Transport rate across MDCK-C11 cell monolayers was 2.9-fold the transport rate across MDCK-C7 cell monolayers. OTA transport was temperature-dependent being reduced from 77.5 pmol/cm2 per h to 10.1 pmol/cm2 per h in MDCK-C11 and from 27.0 pmol/cm2 per h to 7.6 pmol/cm2 per h in MDCK-C7 cells when temperature was decreased from 37 degrees C to 4 degrees C. In both cell clones, the dipeptides carnosine and glycylsarcosine but not the amino acids glycine or phenylalanine had an inhibitory effect on OTA transport. In both cell clones, transepithelial transport of OTA was dependent on the apical pH (pK(a) of OTA = 7.1). In an environment mimicking the transepithelial in vivo pH gradient to some extent with more acidic pH on the apical side than on the basolateral side, transport was 4-fold higher in both cell clones as compared to conditions when pH was 7.4 in both bath solutions. In the absence of a pH gradient, transport rates were similar to that at 4 degrees C. Apical uptake of [3H]OTA was inhibited by carnosine and by glycylsarcosine and the uptake of [3H]carnosine was inhibited by OTA. Our results indicate that OTA is transported across the apical membrane of MDCK cells by both non-ionic diffusion and by a H+-dipeptide cotransporter. Thus, reabsorption of OTA in the collecting duct contributes to the observed long half life of OTA in the mammalian body.

Nuclear Shuttling Precedes Dimerization in Mineralocorticoid Receptor Signaling

The mineralocorticoid receptor (MR), a member of the steroid receptor superfamily, regulates water-electrolyte balance and mediates pathophysiological effects in the renocardiovascular system. Previously, it was assumed that after binding aldosterone, the MR dissociates from HSP90, forms homodimers, and then translocates into the nucleus where it acts as a transcription factor (Guiochon-Mantel et al., 1989; Robertson et al., 1993; Savory et al., 2001). We found that, during aldosterone-induced nuclear translocation, MR is bound to HSP90 both in the cytosol and the nucleus. Homodimerization measured by eBRET and FRET takes place when the MR is already predominantly nuclear. In vitro binding of MR to DNA was independent of ligand but could be partially inhibited by geldanamycin. Overall, here we provide insights into classical MR signaling necessary for elucidating the mechanisms of pathophysiological MR effects and MR specificity.

Rapid actions of aldosterone on cells from renal epithelium: the possible role of EGF-receptor signaling.

It has been suggested that steroids interact with peptide hormones in part by rapid, potentially non-genomic, mechanisms. The peptide hormone epidermal growth factor (EGF) regulates cell proliferation and ion transport using ERK1/2 as downstream signal. Furthermore, the EGF-receptor (EGF-R) is involved in signaling by G-protein-coupled receptors, growth hormone and cytokines via transactivation. We show that aldosterone modulates Na(+)/H(+)-exchange in renal collecting duct-derived Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cells via ERK1/2 in a similar way as compared to growth factors. Furthermore, we tested the hypothesis that aldosterone uses the EGF-R as heterologous signal transducer in MDCK cells. Aldosterone induces a rapid increase of ERK1/2 phosphorylation and cytosolic Ca(2+)-concentration of similar extend as compared to EGF. Furthermore, aldosterone stimulates EGF-R Tyr-phosphorylation. Inhibition of EGF-R kinase abolished aldosterone-induced signaling. Aldosterone-induced Ca(2+)-influx seems to be mediated by the activation of ERK1/2, whereas ERK1/2 activation does not depend on Ca(2+)-influx. Our data show that aldosterone uses the EGF-R-ERK1/2 signaling cascade to elicit its rapid effects in MDCK cells.

Colocalization of mineralocorticoid and EGF receptor at the plasma membrane.

The mineralocorticoid receptor (MR), a ligand-activated transcription factor expressed in various cell types (e.g. epithelial cells, neurons, smooth muscle cells, immune cells), plays important roles in neurohumoral, neuronal, cardiovascular, renal and intestinal function. Pathophysiological relevant signaling mechanisms include nongenomic pathways involving the EGF receptor (EGFR). We investigated whether a MR-EGFR colocalization may underlie the functional MR-EGFR interaction by coimmunoprecipitation, fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) and confocal microscopy in a heterologous expression system. EGFR and a small fraction of MR colocalize at the cell membrane, independently of short time exposure (</=60min) to receptor ligands. Twenty-four-hour-exposure to saturating concentrations of aldosterone (10nmol/l) resulted in an almost complete nuclear translocation of MR and disappearance of MR-EGFR colocalization. EGFR transactivation is enhanced only after MR stimulation. Inhibition of HSP90 by geldanamycin did not reduce the fraction of MR interacting with EGFR. Disruption of cholesterol-rich membrane domains by cyclodextrin reduced MR-EGFR interaction. In conclusion, a subfraction of MR interacts with EGFR at the plasma membrane in our heterologous expression system, possibly at cholesterol-rich domains, to form a steroid receptor/growth factor receptor signaling module.