Simha F. Landau

Cross-cultural evidence of female indirect aggression.

Three types of aggressive behavior (physical, verbal, and indirect) were investigated by help of peer estimations based on The Direct and Indirect Aggression Scales (DIAS) (Finland: Abo Akademi University) [Bjorkqvist et al., 1992b]. Aggressive behavior of adolescents of three age groups (8, 11, and 15 years old), in Finland, (Finnish and Swedish speakers),Israel (secular and religious Israelis),Italy,and Poland were studied (n=2094). Indirect aggression was, in proportional terms, the aggressive style mostly used by girls, across nations, ethnic groups, and age groups studied. Verbal aggression was their second most used: style, and physical aggression was applied least often by girls. Among boys, indirect aggression was, in all ages, the least used aggressive style. Physical and verbal aggression was, by boys, used equally often at ages 8 and 11, while, at the age of 15, verbal aggression had surpassed physical aggression and was the most used style. Scores of victimization to others aggression showed somewhat similar trends.

Exposure to Violence Across the Social Ecosystem and the Development of Aggression: A Test of Ecological Theory in the Israeli–Palestinian Conflict

Bronfenbrenners (1979) ecological model proposes that events in higher order social ecosystems should influence human development through their impact on events in lower order social ecosystems. This proposition was tested with respect to ecological violence and the development of childrens aggression via analyses of 3 waves of data (1 wave yearly for 3 years) from 3 age cohorts (starting ages: 8, 11, and 14) representing three populations in the Middle East: Palestinians (N = 600), Israeli Jews (N = 451), and Israeli Arabs (N = 450). Results supported a hypothesized model in which ethnopolitical violence increases community, family, and school violence and childrens aggression. Findings are discussed with respect to ecological and observational learning perspectives on the development of aggressive behavior.

Exposure to Conflict and Violence across Contexts: Relations to Adjustment among Palestinian Children

Despite extensive literatures on the impact on children of exposure to violence in families, neighborhoods, and peer groups, there has been relatively little effort evaluating their cumulative impact. There also has been less attention to the effects of exposure to political conflict and violence. We collected data from a representative sample of 600 Palestinian youths (3 age cohorts: 8, 11, and 14 years old) to evaluate the relation of exposure to political conflict and violence, and violence in the family, community, and school, to posttraumatic stress (PTS) symptoms and aggressive behavior. Results highlight the additive effects of exposure to political conflict and violence, suggesting that interventionists should consider the full spectrum of sources of environmental risk for PTS symptoms and aggressive behavior.

Exposure to Political Conflict and Violence and Posttraumatic Stress in Middle East Youth: Protective Factors

We examine the role of family- and individual-level protective factors in the relation between exposure to ethnic-political conflict and violence and posttraumatic stress among Israeli and Palestinian youth. Specifically, we examine whether parental mental health (lack of depression), positive parenting, childrens self-esteem, and academic achievement moderate the relation between exposure to ethnic-political conflict/violence and subsequent posttraumatic stress (PTS) symptoms. We collected three waves of data from 901 Israeli and 600 Palestinian youths (three age cohorts: 8, 11, and 14 years old; approximately half of each gender) and their parents at 1-year intervals. Greater cumulative exposure to ethnic-political conflict/violence across the first 2 waves of the study predicted higher subsequent PTS symptoms even when we controlled for the childs initial level of PTS symptoms. This relation was significantly moderated by a youths self-esteem and by the positive parenting received by the youth. In particular, the longitudinal relation between exposure to violence and subsequent PTS symptoms was significant for low self-esteem youth and for youth receiving little positive parenting but was non-significant for children with high levels of these protective resources. Our findings show that youth most vulnerable to PTS symptoms as a result of exposure to ethnic-political violence are those with lower levels of self-esteem and who experience low levels of positive parenting. Interventions for war-exposed youth should test whether boosting self-esteem and positive parenting might reduce subsequent levels of PTS symptoms.

Cumulative effects of exposure to violence on posttraumatic stress in Palestinian and Israeli youth.

We examine cumulative and prospective effects of exposure to conflict and violence across four contexts (ethnic-political, community, family, school) on posttraumatic stress (PTS) symptoms in Palestinian and Israeli youth. Interviews were conducted with 600 Palestinian and 901 Israeli (Jewish and Arab) children (ages 8, 11, and 14) and their parents once a year for 3 consecutive years. Palestinian children, males, and older youth were generally at greatest risk for exposure to conflict/violence across contexts. Regression analysis found unique effects of exposure to ethnic-political (Palestinian sample), school (Palestinian and Israeli Jewish samples), and family conflict/violence (Israeli Arab sample) during the first 2 years on PTS symptoms in Year 3, controlling for prior PTS symptoms. Cumulative exposure to violence in more contexts during the first 2 years predicted higher subsequent PTS symptoms than did exposure to violence in fewer contexts, and this was true regardless of the youths level of prior PTS symptoms. These results highlight the risk that ongoing exposure to violence across multiple contexts in the social ecology poses for the mental health of children in contexts of ethnic-political violence. Researchers and mental health professionals working with war-exposed youth in a given cultural context must assess both war- and non-war-related stressors affecting youth. Based on this assessment, interventions may not be limited to individual-based, war-trauma-focused approaches but also may include school-based, community-based, and family-level interventions.

Trends in Violence and Aggression A Cross-Cultural Analysis *

AGGRESSION AND VIOLENCE, always a popular topic for behavioral research, have become the object of increasing interest in recent years. This increased interest is undoubtedly related to a widespread feeling in many countries that the threat to life and safety have reached unprecedented proportions. Every day we are presented with news about brutal murders and rapes, violence in sporting events (e.g. football hooliganism), family violence (battered wives, battered children), violence against the elderly, gang warfare, school vandalism, politically motivated killing and kidnapping, killings in the course of robberies, etc. Our subjective feelings and impressions give rise to several questions: i . Are the above impressions based merely on the disproportionate and exaggerated presentation of &dquo;violent news&dquo; by the media, or do they reflect a real increase in crimes of violence in recent years? 2. Is the above assumed increase common to all societies or are there crosscultural variations in this respect? 3. What are the possible explanations of changes in the prevalence of violence and aggression in the various societies? In other words, can they be seen within a wider social context, and can they be related to other changes in society? In the following pages an attempt will be made to answer the questions posed above.

Delinquency, Institutionalization, and Time Orientation

This study investigated the temporal orientation of delinquents and non-delinquents while adequately controlling institutionalization. For this purpose, four groups were selected: institutionalized delinquents (prison inmates); institutionalized non-delinquents (soldiers); non-institutionalized delinquents (delinquents on probation); and non-institutionalized non-delinquents (vocational students). The findings support most of the hypotheses: Although all subjects were basically future oriented, the institutionalized subjects (mainly prisoners) were more present oriented than their non-institutionalized counterparts. As the prisoner approached release, there was a decrease in the salience of the present and an increase in the salience of the future in his life space. Delinquents (both in and out of prison) perceived the past as more negative and the future as more positive than did non-delinquents. Institutionalized subjects (especially prisoners) perceived the present as more negative than their non-institutionalized counterparts. The affective attitudes of the non-delinquents toward the past, present, and future were much more balanced and realistic than that of the delinquents.

Stress factors, social support, and violence in Israeli society: a quantitative analysis

In the present study violence in Israel for a period of 32 years (1950-1981) was analyzed, within a stress model according to which the probability of violence and agression as a reaction to stress will increase when social support systems fail or malfunction. Following this model, three types of variables were identified: 1. Measures of stress and social change: to the regular social stressors (i.e., inflation and unemployment), we added two measures of affluence (income per capita and rates of cars) as well as population density. 2. Measures of social support: rates of birth to unmarried mothers and marriage and divorce rates served as measures of the strength of the family. Another measure in this category was rates of psychiatric hospitalization. 3. Measures of violence: in addition to rates of homicide, robbery, and all offenses, inward directed aggression (suicide) was included in this category. At the first stage of the data analysis, Guttmans Smallest Space Analysis (SSA-1) was applied, providing a two-dimensional space diagram of the correlations between the variables. At the second stage, a multiple regression analysis was introduced. The findings indicate that the theoretical model received substantial support mainly from four stress measures (inflation, income per capita, cars, and population density) and one measure of social support (divorce). Unemployment contributed significantly (in the expected direction) only to homicide. Some theoretical implications of the findings, as well as their relevance to some developments in Israeli society are discussed, and suggestions are made for future research.

The Effectiveness of Service Work: An Analysis of Recidivism

The Israeli “service work” law of 1987 enables a court to commute prison sentences of up to 6 months to service work in the community. This paper examines the correctional effectiveness of this new sanction by comparing the rate of recidivism (over a period of 14 months) among 407 offenders sentenced to service work to that of 950 comparable offenders sentenced to imprisonment. As the research design is quasi-experimental, an adjustment for confounders is carried out using the propensity score (PS) methodology. The estimation of the odds ratio of recidivism with respect to sanction comprises two steps: (a) the PS, which is the conditional probability of assignment to a particular sanction given a set of confounders, is estimated by a logistic model; and (b) the conditional probability of recidivism, given the PS and other covariates, is estimated by a second model. The findings indicate that before an adjustment for the systematic differences between the two sanctions was carried out, the odds for recidivism among prisoners were 2.4 times higher than the odds for service workers. After the adjustment, the odds ratio was reduced to 1.7. This estimate indicates that the service work sanction has a considerable correctional effect. The need to address additional criteria for the effectiveness of service work (e.g., net-widening) is emphasized.

The personal and the political : Israelis' perception of well-being in times of war and peace

This study investigated the perception of personal well-being among different segments of Israeli society for various levels of national stress. The three measures utilized (health worries, happiness, and coping) were derived from 203 surveys of national samples conducted between June 1967 and August 1979 (N = 112,005). Gender, education, age, religiosity, and ethnic origin were correlated with these indicators during periods of low, medium, and high national stress. In general, lower levels of well-being were reported by women, the less educated, the older age groups, the religious, and those of Eastern origin, as predicted. Contrary to expectation, health worries decreased during times of high national stress. The results are discussed in the context of differences between measures of well-being, the intensity of stress on the national level, and the role of each of the above sociodemographic variables as a resource, buffer or handicap, in dealing with stress.