Simon Beames

Goffman Goes Rock Climbing: Using Creative Fiction to Explore the Presentation of Self in Outdoor Education

Outdoor education literature has a recent history of examining its practice through a variety of sociological, philosophical, psychological, and anthropological lenses. Following this trend, this paper explores the face-to-face social interaction of a fictional introductory rock-climbing course. The analysis of this creative fiction draws on Erving Goffman’s dramaturgical framework, as described in his book The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life (1959). The discussion highlights how participants and instructors on a practical skill development weekend are involved in the complex endeavour of projecting and sustaining impressions for each other. Goffman’s concepts regarding the ways in which humans conceal and reveal information about themselves may offer outdoor education instructors and researchers a helpful perspective through which they can consider how individual participants’ actions are influenced by the perceived expectations of the different audiences they encounter.

Overseas youth expeditions with Raleigh International: A rite of passage?

This paper examines to what degree a 10-week expedition to Ghana, West Africa may be considered a rite of passage for its British participants. A case study method was adopted to interview 14 British youths two months before leaving on expedition, three times on expedition, and six months post expedition. Thematic analysis was employed to identify positive and negative indicators of van Gennep’s (1960) three stage model of rites of passage: separation, transition, and incorporation. The findings indicated that while the structure of the expedition mimics rites of passage on a superficial level, there are some aspects central to rites of passage that are missing from the overseas expedition experience. Expedition providers may consider adopting van Gennep’s model as a way to ‘re-introduce’ young people back into their communities with added responsibilities.

Expeditions and the social construction of the self

This paper explores how 14 British youth were influenced by a 10-week expedition to Ghana with Raleigh International. It employs a theoretical framework based on the symbolic interactionist writing of Blumer (1969), Mead (1934), and Cooley (1962, 1964). The framework helps to understand how the meanings that participants held for different physical objects, people, and abstract concepts were constantly being modified through a process of interaction and interpretation. The findings of this case study show that participants developed a certain mental resilience, became more willing to undertake challenges, and gained a greater understanding of themselves. Interpersonally, young people developed an increased facility for working and living with people they did not know before. Finally, participants gained a greater appreciation of the modern conveniences they were accustomed to and learned about the economic and democratic differences between the UK and Ghana. Symbolic interactionism was a viable framework for this study, and would appear to be similarly useful for examining how participants in other kinds of outdoor education programmes may construct meaning and identity.

Critical elements of an expedition experience

Abstract Much of the research in outdoor education has focused on participant outcomes rather than the aspects of the experience that elicited those outcomes. This study explores the key elements of a 10-week expedition to Ghana with Raleigh International. Data collection involved five rounds of interviews with 14 British participants over a one-year period, using categorical aggregation to determine five principal themes critical to the experience. The findings highlight the importance of diverse groups living in isolated environments. Changing groups and moving to a new physical setting after four weeks and again at seven weeks was regarded as a challenging but necessary feature of the programme. Finally, there is little evidence linking specific programme activities with specific participant outcomes. It is more important that the experience should emphasise self-sufficient living conditions and physically demanding activities.

Measuring the Unmeasurable Upholding Rigor in Quantitative Studies of Personal and Social Development in Outdoor Adventure Education

Outdoor adventure education (OAE) has a long history of being credited with the personal and social development (PSD) of its participants. PSD is notoriously difficult to measure quantitatively, yet stakeholders demand statistical evidence that given approaches to eliciting PSD are effective in their methods. Rightly or wrongly, many stakeholders want evidence in numbers and not anecdote. This article examines 22 recent studies and 6 meta-analyses in the peer-reviewed literature that have made use of quantitative methods to measure PSD in OAE. The investigation revealed three recurring problem areas that are effectively weakening the body of literature: the sample, the questionnaire and its use, and management of variables. Examples of good practice are reviewed and concrete suggestions made to uphold methodological rigor.

Enough of Ronald and Mickey: Focusing on learning in outdoor education

Fifteen years ago Loynes expressed concern that market-place values were detrimentally impacting on the provision of outdoor education experiences. As tertiary educators with an interest in the impact of globalization on outdoor education, we have sought to extend Loynes’ use of McDonaldization by drawing on Bryman’s conceptual framework of Disneyization in order to more deeply understand patterns of contemporary consumption. We draw on field visits to investigate the degree to which these two concepts have permeated the provision of recreational providers that serve schools. We contend that there is evidence that Loynes’ concerns remain valid, but we suggest that more recent discourses around ‘place’ may offer viable and supportable alternatives to ‘consumption-oriented’ outdoor education practice.

A Critical Interactionist Analysis of 'Youth Development' Expeditions

Abstract Raleigh International is a British youth development charity that offers structured overseas expeditions ‘to inspire young people…to discover their full potential’. The expeditions involve three different projects: adventurous activity, community service and environmental conservation. This paper examines the experiences of a group of venturers who participated in a 10‐week expedition to Ghana. Data were collected through a series of interviews and participant observation. The analysis of the participants’ motives for engaging in the projects is informed by the interactional principles of Erving Goffman. The study participants indicated that their involvement with the organisation was primarily a form of face‐work: to enhance their credibility as they anticipated entering the adult world of employment. In particular, they were concerned with building aspects of character that resonate with Goffman’s elements of courage, gameness, integrity and composure. Raleigh International as the organisational body is seen to display elements of a ‘total institution’, providing the rules and values that govern the social encounter, during the time of which actors live in relative isolation from broader society. This study identifies two areas of concern for these young venturers. First, there was a failure to recognise that their desire for ‘risk’ to develop character was limited by the boundaries placed around their activities by Raleigh International, reflecting a broader culture of caution. And, second, their sense of ‘service’ to a developing nation contained elements of stigmatisation of the people with whom they worked.

Personal development on youth expeditions: a literature review and thematic analysis

Youth expeditions are associated with a range of benefits for participants. More young people are participating in overseas expeditions than ever before as vacation and gap year choices are diversified by a rising number of expedition providers. To date, there has been no systematic research effort to draw together and evaluate the evidence that underpins the benefits or, otherwise, for youths participating in overseas expeditions. This paper reviews empirical and philosophical literature which has been published in a range of journals and themes emerging are placed into a personal growth model. This review (or mapping exercise) focused on post-1990 literature and found 35 key publications which met the criteria: youth expedition; duration exceeding 14 days, self-propelled, and based overseas or out-of-state. The 35 publications (UK 26; USA 4; Australia 3; Japan 1; South Africa 1) were subjected to a thematic analysis using Greenaway’s ‘Four Arrows’ model of personal growth. Outcomes associated with overseas youth expedition participation included (1) upward personal growth (realising potential) including increased confidence; physical and social resilience; self-reliance and ability to overcome challenges, (2) outward personal growth (learning about & relating to others), (3) inward personal growth (learning about self) and (4) downward personal growth (learning about environment). The processes that were valued in overseas expeditions and which, with some caution, may be linked with some of the aforementioned outcomes include: genuine independence; group isolation and self-sufficiency; person-centred leadership; positive responses to stress and physically demanding activity. Suggestions for areas for further meaningful research are offered.

Outdoor education in Hong Kong: Past, present and future

Abstract This paper examines the development of outdoor education in Hong Kong from its colonial roots to the challenges of its uncertain future. The scene is set by a synopsis of Hong Kongs geography, history, economy, and culture. Next, we trace the history of organised outdoor education from the early 1900s to the present day. This is followed by a critical exploration of issues facing youth adventure education programmes and management development programmes. The paper closes with recommendations to return to “real” outdoor courses in natural environments, to raise the standards of training available to outdoor leaders, and finally, to create a governing body that would facilitate inter-organisational learning, raise standards of programme design and delivery, and help build a body of literature that is specific to experiential learning in Hong Kong.

Professionalism in mountain tourism and the claims to professional status of the International Mountain Leader

Mountain Guides and International Mountain Leaders (IMLs) have achieved cross-border recognition of their professional awards. This allows them to work internationally and provides a rare example of an established, state-sanctioned and respected professional group operating within the tourism industry. As it grows, this industry is increasingly looking to elements of professionalism to provide education and training programmes with the status and credibility that can sustain both industry development and public confidence. The case for professionalism amongst IMLs is examined through an in-depth study of the French and British award schemes. Despite their very different origins, histories and cultures, both schemes train and assess candidates for the IML award and have been selected here because they are the largest and oldest of their kind. This comparative studys focus on the structural elements of these two schemes allows certain aspects of the IMLs claim to professional status to be evaluated. First, a framework outlining the defining features of professionalism is explicated. This framework is then used as an analytical tool to evaluate the degree to which the French and British IML schemes can be considered professional. This study concludes that the international accreditation of standards within the field of Mountain Leading, together with the monopolisation of key practices and bodies of knowledge, have contributed to the professionalisation of this area of tourism. There remains much scope, however, for the profession to develop effective and meaningful deontological codes and disciplinary procedures that can further uphold professional standards.