Simon C. Andrews

The haemoglobin-like protein (HMP) of Escherichia coli has ferrisiderophore reductase activity and its C-terminal domain shares homology with ferredoxin NADP" reductases

Three soluble ferrisiderophore reductases (FsrA, FsrB and FsrC) were detected in Escherichia coli. FsrB was purified and identified as the haemoglobin‐like protein (HMP) by size and N‐terminal sequence analyses. HMP was previously isolated as a dihydropteridine reductase and is now shown to have ferrisiderophore reductase activity. Database searches revealed that the C‐terminal region of HMP (FsrB) is homologous to members of a family of flavoprotein oxidoreductases which includes ferredoxin NADP+ reductase (FNR). The combination of FNR‐like and haemoglobin‐like regions in HMP (FsrB) represents a novel pairing of functionally and structurally distinct domains. Structure—function properties of other FNR‐like proteins, including LuxG and VanB, are also discussed.

Direct observation of the iron binding sites in a ferritin

X‐Ray analysis of the ferritin of Escherichia coli (Ec‐FTN) and of Ec‐FTN crystals soaked in (NH4)2Fe(SO4)2 has revealed the presence of three iron‐binding sites per subunit. Two of these form a di‐iron site in the centre of the subunit as has been proposed for the ‘ferroxidase centres’ of human ferritin H chains. This di‐iron site, lying within the 4‐alpha‐helix bundle, resemble those of ribonucleotide reductase, methane monoxygenase and haemerythrin. The third iron is bound by ligands unique to Ec‐FTN on the inner surface of the protein shell. It is speculated that this state may represent the nucleation centre of a novel type of Fe(III) cluster, recently observed in Ec‐FTN.

Site-directed Replacement of the Coaxial Heme Ligands of Bacterioferritin Generates Heme-free Variants

The bacterioferritin (BFR) of Escherichia coli is a heme-containing iron storage molecule. It is composed of 24 identical subunits, which form a roughly spherical protein shell surrounding a central iron storage cavity. Each of the 12 heme moieties of BFR possesses bis-methionine axial ligation, a heme coordination scheme so far only found in bacterioferritins. Members of the BFR family contain three partially conserved methionine residues (excluding the initiating methionine) and in this study each was substituted by leucine and/or histidine. The Met variants were devoid of heme, whereas the Met and Met variants possessed full heme complements and were spectroscopically indistinguishable from wild-type BFR. The heme-free Met variants appeared to be correctly assembled and were capable of accumulating iron both in vivo and in vitro. No major differences were observed in the overall rate of iron accumulation for BFR-M52H, BFR-M52L, and the wild-type protein. The iron contents of the Met variants, as isolated, were at least 4 times greater than for wild-type BFR. This study is consistent with the reported location of the BFR heme site at the 2-fold axis and shows that heme is unnecessary for BFR assembly and iron uptake.

Kinetic and structural characterization of an intermediate in the biomineralization of bacterioferritin

The mechanism by which iron‐storage proteins take up and oxidise iron(II) is not understood. We show by rapid‐kinetic and EPR measurements that iron uptake, in vitro, by a bacterial iron‐storage protein, bacterioferritin, involves at least three kinetically distinguishable phases: phase 1, the binding of Fe(II) ions, probably at a dimeric iron ferroxidase centre; phase 2, oxidation of the Fe(II) dimer and production of mononuclear Fe(III); and phase 3, iron core formation.

Bacterioferritins and ferritins are distantly related in evolution : conservation of ferroxidase-centre residues

Iron‐storage proteins can be divided into two classes; the bacterioferritins and ferritins. In spite of many apparent structural and functional analogies, no significant amino acid sequence similarity has been detected previously. This report now reveals a distant evolutionary relationship between bacterioferritins and ferritins derived by ‘Profile Analysis’. Optimum alignment of bacterioferritin and ferritin sequences suggests that key residues of the ferroxidase centres of ferritins are conserved in bacterioferritins.

Studies on haemosiderin and ferritin from iron-loaded rat liver

SummaryHaemosiderin has been isolated from siderosomes and ferritin from the cytosol of livers of rats iron-loaded by intraperitoneal injections of iron-dextran. Siderosomal haermosiderin, like ferritin, was shown by electron diffraction to contain iron mainly in the form of small particles of ferrihydrite (5Fe2O3 · 9H2O), with average particle diameter of 5.36±1.31 nm (SD), less than that of ferritin iron-cores (6.14±1.18 nm). Mössbauer spectra of both iron-storage complexes are also similar, except that the blocking temperature,TB, for haemosiderin (23 K) is lower than that of ferritin (35 K). These values are consistent with their differences in particle volumes assuming identical magnetic anisotropy constants. Measurements of P/Fe ratios by electron probe microanalysis showed the presence of phosphorus in rat liver haemosiderin, but much of it was lost on extensive dialysis. The presence of peptides reacting with anti-ferritin antisera and the similarities in the structures of their iron components are consistent with the view that rat liver haemosiderin arises by degradation of ferritin polypeptides, but its peptide pattern is different from that found in humanβ-thalassaemia haemosiderin. The blocking temperature, 35 K, for rat liver ferritin is near to that reported, 40 K, for humanβ-thalassaemia spleen ferritin. However, the haemosiderin isolated from this tissue, in contrast to that from rat liver, had aTB higher than that of ferritin. The iron availability of haemosiderins from rat liver and humanβ-thalassaemic spleen to a hydroxypyridinone chelator also differed. That from rat liver was equal to or greater, and that from human spleen was markedly less, than the iron availability from either of the associated ferritins, which were equivalent. The differences in properties of the two types of haemosiderin may reflect their origins from primary or secondary iron overload and differences in the duration of the overload.

Isolation of a ferritin from Bacteroides fragilis

A ferritin was isolated from the obligate anaerobe Bacteroides fragilis. Estimated molecular masses were 400 kDa for the holomer and 16.7 kDa for the subunits. A 30-residue N-terminal amino acid sequence was determined and found to resemble the sequences of other ferritins (human H-chain ferritin, 43% identity; Escherichia coli gen-165 product, 37% identity) and to a lesser degree, bacterioferritins (E. coli bacterioferritin, 20% identity). The protein stained positively for iron, and incorporated 59Fe when B. fragilis was grown in the presence of [59Fe]citrate. However, the isolated protein contained only about three iron atoms per molecule, and contained no detectable haem. This represents the first isolation of a ferritin protein from bacteria. It may alleviate iron toxicity in the presence of oxygen.

Charge compensated binding of divalent metals to bacterioferritin: H+ release associated with cobalt(II) and zinc(II) binding at dinuclear metal sites

Divalent metal ion binding to the bacterial iron-storage protein, bacterioferritin (BFR), which contains a dinuclear metal binding site within each of its 24 subunits, was investigated by potentiometric and spectrophotometric methods. Cobalt(II) and zinc(II) were found to bind at both high- and low-affinity sites. Cobalt(II) binding at the high-affinity site was observed at a level of two per subunit with the release of approximately 1.6 protons per metal ion, thus confirming the dinuclear metal centre as the high-affinity site. Zinc(II) binding at the dinuclear centre (high-affinity site) resulted in the release of approximately 2 protons per metal ion, but exhibited a binding stoichiometry which indicated that not all dinuclear centres were capable of binding two zinc(II) ions. Competition data showed that binding affinities for the dinuclear centre were in the order zinc(II) > cobalt(II), and also confirmed the unexpected stoichiometry of zinc(II) binding. This work emphasises the importance of charge neutrality at the dinuclear centre.Divalent metal ion binding to the bacterial iron‐storage protein, bacterioferritin (BFR), which contains a dinuclear metal binding site within each of its 24 subunits, was investigated by potentiometric and spectrophotometric methods. Cobalt(II) and zinc(II) were found to bind at both high‐ and low‐affinity sites. Cobalt(II) binding at the high‐affinity site was observed at a level of two per subunit with the release of ∼ 1.6 protons per metal ion, thus confirming the dinuclear metal centre as the high‐affinity site. Zinc(II) binding at the dinuclear centre (high‐affinity site) resulted in the release of ∼ 2 protons per metal ion, but exhibited a binding stoichiometry which indicated that not all dinuclear centres were capable of binding two zinc(II) ions. Competition data showed that binding affinities for the dinuclear centre were in the order zinc(II) > cobalt(II), and also confirmed the unexpected stoichiometry of zinc(II) binding. This work emphasises the importance ∼ of charge neutrality at the dinuclear centre.

Physical, chemical and immunological properties of the bacterioferritins of Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Azotobacter vinelandii.

The 70-amino-acid-residue N-terminal sequence of the bacterioferritin (BFR) of Azotobacter vinelandii was determined and shown to be highly similar to the N-terminal sequences of the Escherichia coli and Nitrobacter winogradskyi bacterioferritins. Electrophoretic and immunological analyses further indicate that the bacterioferritins of E. coli, A. vinelandii and Pseudomonas aeruginosa are closely related. A novel, two-subunit assembly state that predominates over the 24-subunit form of BFR at low pH was demonstrated. The results indicate that the bacterioferritins form a family of proteins that are distinct from the ferritins of plants and animals.

An EPR investigation of non-haem iron sites in Escherichia coli bacterioferritin and their interaction with phosphate. A study using nitric oxide as a spin probe.

EPR studies of bacterioferritin (BFR), an iron‐storage protein of Escherichia coli [1993, Biochem. J. 292, 47‐56.], have revealed the presence of non‐haem iron (III) (NHI) sites within the protein coat which may be involved in iron uptake and release. When nitric oxide was used as an EPR spin probe of the Fe(II) state of the NHI sites, two distinct mononuclear NHI species were found. Under certain conditions, an iron dimer was also observed. The reaction of phosphate with NHI species has been investigated. Results point to a function for this anion in core nucleation.