Simon Girling

Genetic Predictions of Prion Disease Susceptibility in Carnivore Species Based on Variability of the Prion Gene Coding Region

Mammalian species vary widely in their apparent susceptibility to prion diseases. For example, several felid species developed prion disease (feline spongiform encephalopathy or FSE) during the bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) epidemic in the United Kingdom, whereas no canine BSE cases were detected. Whether either of these or other groups of carnivore species can contract other prion diseases (e.g. chronic wasting disease or CWD) remains an open question. Variation in the host-encoded prion protein (PrPC) largely explains observed disease susceptibility patterns within ruminant species, and may explain interspecies differences in susceptibility as well. We sequenced and compared the open reading frame of the PRNP gene encoding PrPC protein from 609 animal samples comprising 29 species from 22 genera of the Order Carnivora; amongst these samples were 15 FSE cases. Our analysis revealed that FSE cases did not encode an identifiable disease-associated PrP polymorphism. However, all canid PrPs contained aspartic acid or glutamic acid at codon 163 which we propose provides a genetic basis for observed susceptibility differences between canids and felids. Among other carnivores studied, wolverine (Gulo gulo) and pine marten (Martes martes) were the only non-canid species to also express PrP-Asp163, which may impact on their prion diseases susceptibility. Populations of black bear (Ursus americanus) and mountain lion (Puma concolor) from Colorado showed little genetic variation in the PrP protein and no variants likely to be highly resistant to prions in general, suggesting that strain differences between BSE and CWD prions also may contribute to the limited apparent host range of the latter.

ESTABLISHMENT OF A HEALTH SURVEILLANCE PROGRAM FOR REINTRODUCTION OF THE EURASIAN BEAVER (CASTOR FIBER) INTO SCOTLAND

In 2009 and 2010 16 Norwegian Eurasian beavers (Castor fiber) were reintroduced to Knapdale, Scotland as part of a 5-yr reintroduction trial (Scottish Beaver Trial). Despite numerous reintroduction programs throughout Europe there is no published information concerning recommended health surveillance during beaver reintroduction and only one publication describing causes of mortality. We describe the establishment of a health surveillance program based on International Union of Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and governmental guidelines, and report preliminary results based on the fecal and blood samples following the completion of the first stage of reintroduction. Animals underwent at least one general anesthetic to allow collection of fecal and blood samples and a thorough clinical examination. No bacterial enteric pathogens such as Salmonella spp., Campylobacter spp., or Yersinia pseudotuberculosis were isolated, nor were Giardia spp. or Cryptosporidium spp. However, numerous helminths including Travassosius rufus and Stichorchis subtriquetrus were detected. Five animals were positive for Leptospira antibodies. This included Leptospira saxkoebing, Leptospira canicola, Leptospira copenhageni, Leptospira icterohaemorrhagiae, Leptospira autumnalis, and Leptospira javanica. The highest loss of animals (20%) was during the statutory 6-mo rabies quarantine period. No common cause of death was determined. The rabies quarantine conditions were waived for four remaining animals, three of which were introduced to the wild successfully. The authors recommend the shortest possible quarantine period when introducing beavers, but allowing for the minimum recommended IUCN 35 days to allow for implementation of the initial stage of the health surveillance program, examination of animals, sample collection, and processing.

Treatment of Aspergillus species infection in reptiles with itraconazole at metabolically scaled doses

THERE is little information in the literature on the treatment of fungal diseases, particularly aspergillosis, with itraconazole in reptiles ([Heatley and others 2001][1]). The use of itraconazole in reptiles has largely been extrapolated from birds ([Gamble and others 1997][2]) or mammals ([Heatley

Echinococcus multilocularis Detection in Live Eurasian Beavers (Castor fiber) Using a Combination of Laparoscopy and Abdominal Ultrasound under Field Conditions

Echinococcus multilocularis is an important pathogenic zoonotic parasite of health concern, though absent in the United Kingdom. Eurasian beavers (Castor fiber) may act as a rare intermediate host, and so unscreened wild caught individuals may pose a potential risk of introducing this parasite to disease-free countries through translocation programs. There is currently no single definitive ante-mortem diagnostic test in intermediate hosts. An effective non-lethal diagnostic, feasible under field condition would be helpful to minimise parasite establishment risk, where indiscriminate culling is to be avoided. This study screened live beavers (captive, n = 18 or wild-trapped in Scotland, n = 12) and beaver cadavers (wild Scotland, n = 4 or Bavaria, n = 11), for the presence of E. multilocularis. Ultrasonography in combination with minimally invasive surgical examination of the abdomen by laparoscopy was viable under field conditions for real-time evaluation in beavers. Laparoscopy alone does not allow the operator to visualize the parenchyma of organs such as the liver, or inside the lumen of the gastrointestinal tract, hence the advantage of its combination with abdominal ultrasonography. All live beavers and Scottish cadavers were largely unremarkable in their haematology and serum biochemistry with no values suspicious for liver pathology or potentially indicative of E. multilocularis infection. This correlated well with ultrasound, laparoscopy, and immunoblotting, which were unremarkable in these individuals. Two wild Bavarian individuals were suspected E. multilocularis positive at post-mortem, through the presence of hepatic cysts. Sensitivity and specificity of a combination of laparoscopy and abdominal ultrasonography in the detection of parasitic liver cyst lesions was 100% in the subset of cadavers (95%Confidence Intervals 34.24–100%, and 86.7–100% respectively). For abdominal ultrasonography alone sensitivity was only 50% (95%CI 9.5–90.6%), with specificity being 100% (95%CI 79.2–100%). For laparoscopy alone sensitivity was 100% (95% CI 34.2–100%), with specificity also being 100% (95% CI 77.2–100%). Further immunoblotting, PCR and histopathological examination revealed one individual positive for E. multilocularis, whilst the other individual was positive for Taenia martis.

Bacterial carriage of computer keyboards in veterinary practices in Scotland.

STUDIES in human hospitals have shown that objects such as door handles and computer keyboards can act as sources of contamination with bacteria such as meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and Campylobacter ([Bures and others 2000][1], [Kassem and others 2007][2]). The aim of this

Fatal cowpox virus infection in two squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus)

Cowpox virus (CPXV) is a member of the family Poxviridae, genus Orthopoxvirus , and causes disease in a wide range of species, most commonly cats and human beings (Essbauer and others 2010, Bennett and others 2008). CPXV is found in Europe and northern and central Asia, where the reservoir hosts are believed to be wild rodents. In recent years, the incidence of cowpox in both cats and human beings in Europe has risen and CPXV infection has been reported in an ever-increasing range of species, leading CPXV to be labelled an emerging health threat (Vorou and others 2008). CPXV outbreaks in zoological collections have been reported previously in elephants and felids (Marennikova and others 1977, Baxby and others 1982, Greenwood 2003), banded mongooses ( Mungos mungo ) and jaguarundis ( Puma yaguarondi ) (Kurth and others 2009) and primates (Matz-Rensing and others 2006, Martina and others 2006). This short communication describes fatal CPXV infection of captive squirrel monkeys ( Saimiri sciureus ). A female, five-year-old squirrel monkey developed multifocal lesions on its hands, feet, limbs, tail and face, particularly around the mouth and eyes (Fig 1). The animal had a one-month-old nursing infant and was living in a colony of 17 squirrel monkeys cohabiting with a colony of 11 brown capuchins ( Cebus apella ). No other animal in the group, including the infant, was affected. Initially, the lesions were thought to be traumatic, as the female had been seen to be bullied by other members of the group. However, …

Anaesthesia of a captive, male giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca)

The safe veterinary management of giant pandas is of considerable importance because of their scarcity and value in political and conservation terms. However, a literature search conducted using PubMed and the Web of Science indicated a paucity of information regarding anaesthesia in this species. We wish to report an anaesthetic technique that was used successfully in a captive, adult male giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) on two occasions. Anaesthesia was necessary on the first occasion for diagnostic imaging and gastrointestinal endoscopy because the subject, which weighed 115 kg, was suffering from intermittent signs of colic. A combination of 40 lg kg medetomidine (40 mg mL; Kyron Laboratories, South Africa) and 3 mg kg ketamine (Kyron Laboratories) was administered by blow-dart into m. semimembranosus. The animal became recumbent and unresponsive to physical stimulation within 12 minutes of injection. A second anaesthetic given 12 weeks later, when the animal weighed 125 kg, was for electro-ejaculation. The technique was based on a 35 lg kg medetomidine and 2.5 mg kg ketamine combination injected into the quadriceps muscles and produced profound sedation within 5 minutes. On both occasions, the anaesthetized animal showed no signs of respiratory obstruction despite adopting a head-up sitting position against the bars of the enclosure. Subsequently, again on both occasions, 2–3% sevoflurane (SevoFlo; Abbott Laboratories, UK) was delivered in oxygen via a Hall-pattern facemask applied to the nostrils until jaw relaxation made orotracheal intubation possible. Intubation was achieved with the animal in sternal recumbency, using laryngoscopy (size 3 Miller blade) and a 14 mm cuffed endotracheal tube (ETT). Anaesthesia was maintained using sevoflurane vaporized in oxygen administered through a circle breathing system. On both occasions, the heart rate ranged from 58 to 78 beats minute during anaesthesia. During the first anaesthetic, the heart rate decreased gradually, this fall being attributed to a rectal temperature which decreased from 37.2 to 35.6 C. In the second case, the heart rate varied from 58 to 70 beats minute, rising during electro-ejaculation. During this procedure the lungs were hyperventilated manually at 10 breaths minute to produce end-tidal CO2 partial pressures of 4.1–4.6 kPa (31–35 mm Hg); end-tidal CO2 was measured using sidestream capnography (BeneView T5; Mindray Ltd, UK) connected to the ETT. The oxygen saturation was measured by pulse oximetry, using a lingual probe and saturation remained ‡94% during both anaesthetics. A 22 gauge cannula was placed in the sublingual vein, through which Ringer’s lactate solution was administered at 5 mL kg hour. On the second occasion, 0.2 mg kg meloxicam (Metacam 20 mg mL; Boehringer Ingelheim, UK) was administered intravenously to provide analgesia. Electro-ejaculation caused repeated, marked contractions in the muscles of the pelvic limbs, which may cause muscle damage and pain. During recovery, the animal was positioned in left lateral recumbency and atipamezole (Revertor; Virbac Limited, UK) was injected intramuscularly at five times the medetomidine dose. Oxygen supplementation was continued until tracheal extubation became necessary at 10 (occasion 1) and 20 minutes (occasion 2) after discontinuation of sevoflurane. The animal moved into sternal recumbency and walked within 5 minutes of tracheal extubation on both occasions. It was allowed to eat bamboo approximately 20 minutes later, when it appeared to walk normally. There is little published information on anaesthesia in giant pandas. Masui et al. (1989) reported the successful immobilization of two adults (for electroejaculation and artificial insemination) using diazepam (0.1 mg kg) and ketamine (4.0–5.0 mg kg) whilst Platz et al. (1983) described the use of tiletamine-zolazepam on four occasions in the same animal. In the current case, medetomidine was chosen for its reversible sedative effects, availability and suitability for administration by dart. Medetom-

Haematology and serum biochemistry parameters and variations in the Eurasian Beaver (Castor fiber).

Haematology parameters (N = 24) and serum biochemistry parameters (N = 35) were determined for wild Eurasian beavers (Castor fiber), between 6 months – 12 years old. Of the population tested in this study, N = 18 Eurasian beavers were from Norway and N = 17 originating from Bavaria but now living extensively in a reserve in England. All blood samples were collected from beavers via the ventral tail vein. All beavers were chemically restrained using inhalant isoflurane in 100% oxygen prior to blood sampling. Results were determined for haematological and serum biochemical parameters for the species and were compared between the two different populations with differences in means estimated and significant differences being noted. Standard blood parameters for the Eurasian beaver were determined and their ranges characterised using percentiles. Whilst the majority of blood parameters between the two populations showed no significant variation, haemoglobin, packed cell volume, mean cell haemoglobin and white blood cell counts showed significantly greater values (p<0.01) in the Bavarian origin population than the Norwegian; neutrophil counts, alpha 2 globulins, cholesterol, sodium: potassium ratios and phosphorus levels showed significantly (p<0.05) greater values in Bavarian versus Norwegian; and potassium, bile acids, gamma globulins, urea, creatinine and total calcium values levels showed significantly (p<0.05) greater values in Norwegian versus Bavarian relict populations. No significant differences were noted between male and female beavers or between sexually immature (<3 years old) and sexually mature (≥3 years old) beavers in the animals sampled. With Eurasian beaver reintroduction encouraged by legislation throughout Europe, knowledge of baseline blood values for the species and any variations therein is essential when assessing their health and welfare and the success or failure of any reintroduction program. This is the first study to produce base-line blood values and their variations for the Eurasian beaver.

Laparoscopic-Assisted Cryptorchidectomy in an Adult Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus)

A successful laparoscopic-assisted cryptorchidectomy is reported in a novel species, the reindeer (Rangifer tarandus). The procedure was performed in an 8-year-old adult positioned in dorsolateral oblique recumbency, with an open approach midline subumbilical placement of the primary 10 mm optical port and carbon dioxide insufflation at 12 mmHg. Three 5 mm instrument ports were inserted under visualization in the left caudal abdomen as the retained testicle was localized to the internal inguinal ring. A 5 mm flexible organ retractor was used to assist in localizing the retained testicle. This procedure provided a less invasive alternative to open laparotomy. The authors are unaware of any published reports of laparoscopy in reindeer, or of laparoscopic assisted cryptorchidectomy in deer species.

Listeria monocytogenes Septicaemia in an Inland Bearded Dragon, Pogona vitticeps

ABSTRACT Listeriosis is a common disease of mammals, particularly ruminant livestock, but also of humans. It is frequently associated with low environmental temperatures, such as is encountered in ...