Sjerp de Vries

Green space, urbanity, and health: how strong is the relation?

Study objectives: To investigate the strength of the relation between the amount of green space in people’s living environment and their perceived general health. This relation is analysed for different age and socioeconomic groups. Furthermore, it is analysed separately for urban and more rural areas, because the strength of the relation was expected to vary with urbanity. Design: The study includes 250 782 people registered with 104 general practices who filled in a self administered form on sociodemographic background and perceived general health. The percentage of green space (urban green space, agricultural space, natural green space) within a one kilometre and three kilometre radius around the postal code coordinates was calculated for each household. Methods: Multilevel logistic regression analyses were performed at three levels—that is, individual level, family level, and practice level—controlled for sociodemographic characteristics. Main results: The percentage of green space inside a one kilometre and a three kilometre radius had a significant relation to perceived general health. The relation was generally present at all degrees of urbanity. The overall relation is somewhat stronger for lower socioeconomic groups. Elderly, youth, and secondary educated people in large cities seem to benefit more from presence of green areas in their living environment than other groups in large cities. Conclusions: This research shows that the percentage of green space in people’s living environment has a positive association with the perceived general health of residents. Green space seems to be more than just a luxury and consequently the development of green space should be allocated a more central position in spatial planning policy.

Natural Environments—Healthy Environments? An Exploratory Analysis of the Relationship between Greenspace and Health

Are people living in greener areas healthier than people living in less green areas? This hypothesis was empirically tested by combining Dutch data on the self-reported health of over 10 000 people with land-use data on the amount of greenspace in their living environment. In the multilevel analysis we controlled for socioeconomic and demographic characteristics, as well as urbanity. Living in a green environment was positively related to all three available health indicators, even stronger than urbanity at the municipal level. Analyses on subgroups showed that the relationship between greenspace and one of the health indicators was somewhat stronger for housewives and the elderly, two groups that are assumed to be more dependent on, and therefore exposed to, the local environment. Furthermore, for all three health indicators the relationship with greenspace was somewhat stronger for lower educated people. Implications for policymaking and spatial planning are discussed briefly.

Vitamin G: effects of green space on health, well-being, and social safety

BackgroundLooking out on and being in the green elements of the landscape around us seem to affect health, well-being and feelings of social safety. This article discusses the design of a research program on the effects of green space in the living environment on health, well-being and social safety.Methods/designThe program consists of three projects at three different scales: at a macro scale using data on the Netherlands as a whole, at an intermediate scale looking into the specific effect of green space in the urban environment, and at micro scale investigating the effects of allotment gardens. The projects are observational studies, combining existing data on land use and health interview survey data, and collecting new data through questionnaires and interviews. Multilevel analysis and GIS techniques will be used to analyze the data.DiscussionPrevious (experimental) research in environmental psychology has shown that a natural environment has a positive effect on well-being through restoration of stress and attentional fatigue. Descriptive epidemiological research has shown a positive relationship between the amount of green space in the living environment and physical and mental health and longevity.The program has three aims. First, to document the relationship between the amount and type of green space in peoples living environment and their health, well-being, and feelings of safety. Second, to investigate the mechanisms behind this relationship. Mechanisms relate to exposure (leading to stress reduction and attention restoration), healthy behavior and social integration, and selection. Third, to translate the results into policy on the crossroads of spatial planning, public health, and safety. Strong points of our program are: we study several interrelated dependent variables, in different ordinary settings (as opposed to experimental or extreme settings), focusing on different target groups, using appropriate multilevel methods.

Benefits and Uses of Urban Forests and Trees

Trees and forests are, because of seasonal changes and their size, shape, and color, the most prominent elements of urban nature. Their benefits and uses range from intangible psychological and aesthetic benefits to amelioration of urban climate and mitigation of air pollution. Historically the main benefits of urban trees and forests relate to health, aesthetic and recreational benefits in industrialized cities. Moreover, green areas have provided people with subsistence by providing food, fodder, fuel, wood and timber for construction (see Chap. 2). Today, woodland, woods and trees are important to people especially through symbolizing personal, local, community and cultural meanings. They provide aesthetic enjoyment and create a pleasant environment for different outdoor activities. Woodland can provide an experience of nature in the middle of urban life. In particular, old woodland with big trees may provide urban people with the opportunity to recover from daily stress, revive memories and regain confidence. There is also an important educational value of urban forests. Contact with trees, in particular for children, can help people learn about nature and natural processes in an otherwise artificial environment. Urban trees and woodland also contribute to an attractive green townscape and thus communicate the image of a positive, nature-oriented city. Indirectly, urban trees and forests can promote tourism and enhance economic development. At the local level trees contribute to the quality of housing and working environments and their benefits are reflected in property values. The same urban woodland areas and trees may have multiple benefits that reinforce each other. Recreational woodland, for example, also reduces wind speed and traffic noise as well as improves the landscape in a nearby residential area. To a certain extent the distinction between different categories of benefits is artificial. However benefits have their own special features and therefore can be presented separately (Table 4.1). While these benefits of urban woodland, other tree stands and individual trees are not new they are still insufficiently recognised in urban planning and development processes (see Chap. 5). There is need to provide more knowledge on the role of urban woodland and trees in improvement of the environment and relate this to their social functions such as fostering mental and physical health. This chapter aims to give insight into the current state of knowledge about benefits and uses of urban forests and trees in Europe. This is a difficult enterprise due to the complexity of the European continent. Urban forest research is largely national or even Benefits and Uses of Urban Forests and Trees

Contributions of Natural Environments to Physical Activity : Theory and Evidence Base

The link between modern lifestyles and increasing levels of chronic heart disease, obesity, stress and poor mental health is a concern across the world. The cost of dealing with these conditions pl ...

Allotment gardening and health: a comparative survey among allotment gardeners and their neighbors without an allotment.

BackgroundThe potential contribution of allotment gardens to a healthy and active life-style is increasingly recognized, especially for elderly populations. However, few studies have empirically examined beneficial effects of allotment gardening. In the present study the health, well-being and physical activity of older and younger allotment gardeners was compared to that of controls without an allotment.MethodsA survey was conducted among 121 members of 12 allotment sites in the Netherlands and a control group of 63 respondents without an allotment garden living next to the home addresses of allotment gardeners. The survey included five self-reported health measures (perceived general health, acute health complaints, physical constraints, chronic illnesses, and consultations with GP), four self-reported well-being measures (stress, life satisfaction, loneliness, and social contacts with friends) and one measure assessing self-reported levels of physical activity in summer. Respondents were divided into a younger and older group at the median of 62 years which equals the average retirement age in the Netherlands.ResultsAfter adjusting for income, education level, gender, stressful life events, physical activity in winter, and access to a garden at home as covariates, both younger and older allotment gardeners reported higher levels of physical activity during the summer than neighbors in corresponding age categories. The impacts of allotment gardening on health and well-being were moderated by age. Allotment gardeners of 62 years and older scored significantly or marginally better on all measures of health and well-being than neighbors in the same age category. Health and well-being of younger allotment gardeners did not differ from younger neighbors. The greater health and well-being benefits of allotment gardening for older gardeners may be related to the finding that older allotment gardeners were more oriented towards gardening and being active, and less towards passive relaxation.ConclusionsThese findings are consistent with the notion that having an allotment garden may promote an active life-style and contribute to healthy aging. However, the findings may be limited by self selection and additional research is needed to confirm and extend the current findings.The potential contribution of allotment gardens to a healthy and active life-style is increasingly recognized, especially for elderly populations. However, few studies have empirically examined beneficial effects of allotment gardening. In the present study the health, well-being and physical activity of older and younger allotment gardeners was compared to that of controls without an allotment. A survey was conducted among 121 members of 12 allotment sites in the Netherlands and a control group of 63 respondents without an allotment garden living next to the home addresses of allotment gardeners. The survey included five self-reported health measures (perceived general health, acute health complaints, physical constraints, chronic illnesses, and consultations with GP), four self-reported well-being measures (stress, life satisfaction, loneliness, and social contacts with friends) and one measure assessing self-reported levels of physical activity in summer. Respondents were divided into a younger and older group at the median of 62 years which equals the average retirement age in the Netherlands. After adjusting for income, education level, gender, stressful life events, physical activity in winter, and access to a garden at home as covariates, both younger and older allotment gardeners reported higher levels of physical activity during the summer than neighbors in corresponding age categories. The impacts of allotment gardening on health and well-being were moderated by age. Allotment gardeners of 62 years and older scored significantly or marginally better on all measures of health and well-being than neighbors in the same age category. Health and well-being of younger allotment gardeners did not differ from younger neighbors. The greater health and well-being benefits of allotment gardening for older gardeners may be related to the finding that older allotment gardeners were more oriented towards gardening and being active, and less towards passive relaxation. These findings are consistent with the notion that having an allotment garden may promote an active life-style and contribute to healthy aging. However, the findings may be limited by self selection and additional research is needed to confirm and extend the current findings.

Green cities and health: a question of scale?

Background Cities are expanding and accommodating an increasing proportion of the worlds population. It is important to identify features of urban form that promote the health of city dwellers. Access to green space has been associated with health benefits at both individual and neighbourhood level. We investigated whether a relationship between green space coverage and selected mortality rates exists at the city level in the USA. Methods An ecological cross-sectional study. A detailed land use data set was used to quantify green space for the largest US cities (n=49, combined population of 43 million). Linear regression models were used to examine the association between city-level ‘greenness’ and city-level standardised rates of mortality from heart disease, diabetes, lung cancer, motor vehicle fatalities and all causes, after adjustment for confounders. Results There was no association between greenness and mortality from heart disease, diabetes, lung cancer or automobile accidents. Mortality from all causes was significantly higher in greener cities. Conclusions While considerable evidence suggests that access to green space yields health benefits, we found no such evidence at the scale of the American city. In the USA, greener cities tend also to be more sprawling and have higher levels of car dependency. Any benefits that the green space might offer seem easily eclipsed by these other conditions and the lifestyles that accompany them. The result merits further investigation as it has important implications for how we increase green space access in our cities.

Is Green Space in the Living Environment Associated with People's Feelings of Social Safety?

The authors investigate whether the percentage of green space in peoples living environment affects their feelings of social safety positively or negatively. More specifically they investigate the extent to which this relationship varies between urban and rural areas, between groups in the community that can be identified as more or less vulnerable, and the extent to which different types of green space exert different influences. The study includes 83 736 Dutch citizens who were interviewed about their feelings of social safety. The percentage of green space in the living environment of each respondent was calculated, and data analysed by use of a three-level latent variable model, controlled for individual and environmental background characteristics. The analyses suggest that more green space in peoples living environment is associated with enhanced feelings of social safety—except in very strongly urban areas, where enclosed green spaces are associated with reduced feelings of social safety. Contrary to the common image of green space as a dangerous hiding place for criminal activity which causes feelings of insecurity, the results suggest that green space generally enhances feelings of social safety. The results also suggest, however, that green space in the most urban areas is a matter of concern with respect to social safety.

Exploring pathways linking greenspace to health: Theoretical and methodological guidance

Background In a rapidly urbanizing world, many people have little contact with natural environments, which may affect health and well‐being. Existing reviews generally conclude that residential greenspace is beneficial to health. However, the processes generating these benefits and how they can be best promoted remain unclear. Objectives During an Expert Workshop held in September 2016, the evidence linking greenspace and health was reviewed from a transdisciplinary standpoint, with a particular focus on potential underlying biopsychosocial pathways and how these can be explored and organized to support policy‐relevant population health research. Discussions Potential pathways linking greenspace to health are here presented in three domains, which emphasize three general functions of greenspace: reducing harm (e.g. reducing exposure to air pollution, noise and heat), restoring capacities (e.g. attention restoration and physiological stress recovery) and building capacities (e.g. encouraging physical activity and facilitating social cohesion). Interrelations between among the three domains are also noted. Among several recommendations, future studies should: use greenspace and behavioural measures that are relevant to hypothesized pathways; include assessment of presence, access and use of greenspace; use longitudinal, interventional and (quasi)experimental study designs to assess causation; and include low and middle income countries given their absence in the existing literature. Cultural, climatic, geographic and other contextual factors also need further consideration. Conclusions While the existing evidence affirms beneficial impacts of greenspace on health, much remains to be learned about the specific pathways and functional form of such relationships, and how these may vary by context, population groups and health outcomes. This Report provides guidance for further epidemiological research with the goal of creating new evidence upon which to develop policy recommendations. HighlightsAlthough it appears that greenspace benefits health, the pathways are unclear.We have organized pathways into three domains that emphasize greenspace functions.Pathways likely intertwine and vary by context, populations and health outcomes.We identify diverse challenges in measurement and analysis that require attention.Research guided by our discussion will better efforts to enable greenspace‐related health benefits.

Modelling recreational visits to forests and nature areas.

Besides their ecological and production function, the social function of forests and nature areas is becoming more and more important However, data, norms, and planning tools for this social function are limited. This makes it difficult for policy makers to do justice to this function, especially in the Netherlands, where spatial claims for different functions often exceed the available amount of land. In this paper we describe the development of a GIS-based planning tool for the recreational function of forests and nature areas. The tool focuses on the number of visits that may be expected. Besides the size of destination areas also the quality of the areas is taken into account. This quality is assessed using GIS-data on e.g. land-use, relief, noise, and the density of walking and cycling opportunities. Airline distances, as well as road distances (for cars) between residential areas and destination areas are calculated using GIS-analysis. The number of trips generated by a local population is then divided over the available areas within a pre-set range, taking each destinations quality and distance into account. The tool is suited not only for predicting present numbers of visits, but also for simulating the effect of new areas being developed, residential as well as natural. Also it can indicate residential areas where the local supply of forests and nature areas is wanting. Preliminary results for the city of Breda are presented.