Slim Haddad

Abolishing User Fees in Africa

Valéry Ridde and Slim Haddad discuss a new trial in Ghana in which households were randomized into a pre-payment scheme allowing free primary care or to a control group who paid user fees for health care.

Utilization of community health workers for malaria treatment: results from a three-year panel study in the districts of Kaya and Zorgho, Burkina Faso

BackgroundMalaria is holo-endemic in Burkina Faso and causes approximately 40,000 deaths every year. In 2010, health authorities scaled up community case management of malaria with artemisinin-based combination therapy. Previous trials and pilot project evaluations have shown that this strategy may be feasible, acceptable, and effective under controlled implementation conditions. However, little is known about its effectiveness or feasibility/acceptability under real-world conditions of implementation at national scale.MethodsA panel study was conducted in two health districts of Burkina Faso, Kaya and Zorgho. Three rounds of surveys were conducted during the peak malaria-transmission season (in August 2011, 2012 and 2013) in a panel of 2,232 randomly selected households. All sickness episodes in children under five and associated health-seeking practices were documented. Community health worker (CHW) treatment coverage was evaluated and the determinants of consulting a CHW were analysed using multi-level logistic regression.ResultsIn urban areas, less than 1% of sick children consulted a CHW, compared to 1%–9% in rural areas. Gaps remained between intentions and actual practices in treatment-seeking behaviour. In 2013, the most frequent reasons for not consulting the CHW were: the fact of not knowing him/her (78% in urban areas; 33% in rural areas); preferring the health centre (23% and 45%, respectively); and drug stock-outs (2% and 12%, respectively). The odds of visiting a CHW in rural areas significantly increased with the distance to the nearest health centre and if the household had been visited by a CHW during the previous three months.ConclusionsThis study shows that CHWs are rarely used in Burkina Faso to treat malaria in children. Issues of implementation fidelity, a lack of adaptation to the local context and problems of acceptability/feasibility might have undermined the effectiveness of community case management of malaria. While some suggest extending this strategy in urban areas, total absence of CHW services uptake in these areas suggest that caution is required. Even in rural areas, treatment coverage by CHWs was considerably less than that reported by previous trials and pilot projects. This study confirms the necessity of evaluating public health interventions under real-world conditions of implementation.

Monitoring the performance of the Expanded Program on Immunization : the case of Burkina Faso

BackgroundThe greatest challenge facing expanded programs on immunization in general, and in Burkina Faso in particular, lies in their capacity to achieve and sustain levels of immunization coverage that will ensure effective protection of children. This article aims to demonstrate that full immunization coverage of children, which is the primary indicator for monitoring national immunization programs, is sufficient neither to evaluate their performance adequately, nor to help identify the broad strategies that must be implemented to improve their performance. Other dimensions of performance, notably adherence to the vaccination schedule and the efficacy of the approaches used to reach all the children (targeting) must also be considered.MethodsThe study was carried out using data from surveys carried out in Burkina Faso: the 1993, 1998 and 2003 Demographic and Health Surveys and the 2003 national Survey of Immunization Coverage. Essentially, we described levels of immunization coverage and their trends according to the indicators considered. Performance differences are illustrated by amplitudes and maximum/minimum ratios.ResultsThe health regions performances vary according to whether they are evaluated on the basis of full immunization coverage or vaccination status of children who have not completed their vaccinations. The health regions encompass a variety of realities, and efforts of substantially different intensity would be required to reach all the target populations.ConclusionDecision-making can be improved by integrating a tripartite view of performance that includes full immunization coverage, adherence to the vaccination schedule (timely coverage), and the status of children who are not fully vaccinated. With such an approach, interventions can be better targeted. It provides information on the quality and timeliness of vaccination and identifies the efforts required to meet the objectives of full immunization coverage.Abstract in FrenchSee the full article online for a translation of this abstract in French.

Impact of a Positive Deviance Approach to Improve the Effectiveness of an Iron-Supplementation Program to Control Nutritional Anemia among Rural Senegalese Pregnant Women

Background Iron supplementation through prenatal care remains the most widespread strategy to control anemia during pregnancy, but its effectiveness is only partial, showing the need to address other approaches. Objective This study was conducted to measure the impact of a positive deviance approach to improve an iron-supplementation program among pregnant women in a rural Senegalese area. Methods A positive deviance approach (PD Micah) was compared with an ongoing integrated nutrition and health program intervention (Micah) in a rural Senegalese area. A pre-post evaluation was conducted using independent cross-sectional samples with a total of 371 pregnant women. A sociodemographic questionnaire was administered, and biologic and anthropometric measurements were performed. Results After 9 months of activities, the mean hemoglobin level rose from 93.9 to 100.7 g/L in the PD Micah group. Distribution of iron supplements through community volunteers and implementation of healthy pregnancy promotion sessions on a monthly basis improved the accessibility to 23.3% in the PD Micah group. No significant change was observed in the Micah group. Logistic regression analysis showed a significantly reduced risk of anemia in the PD Micah area (adjusted odds ratio, 0.25; 95% confidence interval, 0.12 to 0.53). Conclusions This intervention shows that a community-based strategy, such as the positive deviance approach, can contribute to improving the effectiveness of iron supplementation during pregnancy.

Abolishing Fees at Health Centers in the Context of Community Case Management of Malaria: What Effects on Treatment-Seeking Practices for Febrile Children in Rural Burkina Faso?

Introduction Burkina Faso started nationwide community case management of malaria (CCMm) in 2010. In 2011, health center user fees for children under five were abolished in some districts. Objective To assess the effects of concurrent implementation of CCMm and user fees abolition on treatment-seeking practices for febrile children. Methods This is a natural experiment conducted in the districts of Kaya (CCMm plus user fees abolition) and Zorgho (CCMm only). Registry data from 2005 to 2014 on visits for malaria were collected from all eight rural health centers in the study area. Annual household surveys were administered during malaria transmission season in 2011 and 2012 in 1,035 randomly selected rural households. Interrupted time series models were fitted for registry data and Fine and Gray’s competing risks models for survey data. Results User fees abolition in Kaya significantly increased health center use by eligible children with malaria (incidence rate ratio for intercept change = 2.1, p <0.001). In 2011, in Kaya, likelihood of health center use for febrile children was three times higher and CHW use three times lower when caregivers knew services were free. Among the 421 children with fever in 2012, the delay before visiting a health center was significantly shorter in Kaya than in Zorgho (1.46 versus 1.79 days, p <0.05). Likelihood of visiting a health center on the first day of fever among households <2.5km or <5 km from a health center was two and three times higher in Kaya than in Zorgho, respectively (p <0.001). Conclusions User fees abolition reduced visit delay for febrile children living close to health centers. It also increased demand for and use of health center for children with malaria. Concurrently, demand for CHWs’ services diminished. User fees abolition and CCMm should be coordinated to maximize prompt access to treatment in rural areas.

The elimination of healthcare user fees for children under five substantially alleviates the burden on household expenses in Burkina Faso

BackgroundSince September 2008, an intervention has made it possible to provide free care to children under five in public health facilities in two districts of Burkina Faso. This study evaluated the intervention’s impact on household expenses incurred for services (consultations and medications) to the children targeted.MethodsThe study is based on a survey of a representative panel of 1,260 households encountered in two waves, one month before and 12xa0months after the introduction of the intervention. The questions explored the illness episodes of all children under five in the 30xa0days before each wave. The analysis of health expenses incurred during an illness episode distinguished between total expenses and those incurred in public health facilities (charges for services and medications). Analyses based on multilevel simultaneous equation models were used to estimate the probability of spending and the amount spent, in a context where a large number of observations returned a count of zero.ResultsThe burden on household expenses was greatly alleviated under the intervention. Average expenditure dropped from US

Canada's global health role: supporting equity and global citizenship as a middle power

11 per episode of care to less than US

Impact of contaminated household environment on stunting in children aged 12–59 months in Burkina Faso

2 after the intervention was implemented. The risk of incurring an expense at a public health facility was reduced by two-thirds. The facility users’ savings were primarily related to medication purchases. In rural areas, where barriers to access health services are more acute, both poor and non-poor families benefited from the intervention. The probability of spending on medications dropped dramatically for both the poor and the non-poor under the exemption (−75xa0% vs.–77xa0%), and the reduction in expenses for medications generated by the intervention was comparable for both groups in relative values (−86xa0% vs.–89xa0%).ConclusionUser fees abolition at the point of service substantially alleviated the burden on household expenses. The intervention benefited both poor and non-poor families and provided financial protection.

Effect of interrupting free healthcare for children: Drawing lessons at the critical moment of national scale-up in Burkina Faso

n Summaryn n Canadas history of nation building, combined with its status as a so-called middle power in international affairs, has been translated into an approach to global health that is focused on equity and global citizenship. Canada has often aspired to be a socially progressive force abroad, using alliance building and collective action to exert influence beyond that expected from a country with moderate financial and military resources. Conversely, when Canada has primarily used economic self-interest to define its global role, the countrys perceived leadership in global health has diminished. Current Prime Minister Justin Trudeaus Liberal federal government has signalled a return to progressive values, driven by appreciation for diversity, equality, and Canadas responsibility to be a good global citizen. However, poor coordination of efforts, limited funding, and the unaddressed legacy of Canadas colonisation of Indigenous peoples weaken the potential for Canadians to make meaningful contributions to improvement of global health equity. Amid increased nationalism and uncertainty towards multilateral commitments by some major powers in the world, the Canadian federal government has a clear opportunity to convert its commitments to equity and global citizenship into stronger leadership on the global stage. Such leadership will require the translation of aspirational messages about health equity and inclusion into concrete action at home and internationally.n n

Impact Evaluation of Seasonal Malaria Chemoprevention under Routine Program Implementation: A Quasi-Experimental Study in Burkina Faso

Background Stunting affects 165 million children worldwide, with repercussions on their survival and development. A contaminated environment is likely to contribute to stunting: frequent faecal-oral transmission possibly causes environmental enteropathy, a chronic inflammatory disorder that may contribute to faltering growth in children. This studys objective was to assess the effect of contaminated environment on stunting in Burkina Faso, where stunting prevalence is persistently high. Methods Panel study of children aged 1–5u2005years in Kaya. Household socioeconomic characteristics, food needs and sanitary conditions were measured once, and child growth every year (2011–2014). Using multiple correspondence analysis and 12 questions and observations on water, sanitation, hygiene behaviours, yard cleanliness and animal proximity, we constructed a ‘contaminated environment’ index as a proxy of faecal-oral transmission exposure. Analysis was performed using a generalised structural equation model (SEM), adjusting for repeat observations and hierarchical data. Results Stunting (<2 SD height-for-age) prevalence was 29% among 3121 children (median (IQR) age 36 (25–48) months). Environment contamination was widespread, particularly in rural and peri-urban areas, and was associated with stunting (prevalence ratio 1.30; p=0.008), controlling for sex, age, survey year, setting, mothers education, fathers occupation, household food security and wealth. This association was significant for children of all ages (1–5u2005years) and settings. Lower contamination and higher food security had effects of comparable magnitude. Conclusions Environment contamination can be at least as influential as nutritional components in the pathway to stunting. There is a rationale for including interventions to reduce environment contamination in stunting prevention programmes.