Songjoon Baek

Extensive chromatin remodelling and establishment of transcription factor ‘hotspots’ during early adipogenesis

Adipogenesis is tightly controlled by a complex network of transcription factors acting at different stages of differentiation. Peroxisome proliferator‐activated receptor γ (PPARγ) and CCAAT/enhancer‐binding protein (C/EBP) family members are key regulators of this process. We have employed DNase I hypersensitive site analysis to investigate the genome‐wide changes in chromatin structure that accompany the binding of adipogenic transcription factors. These analyses revealed a dramatic and dynamic modulation of the chromatin landscape during the first hours of adipocyte differentiation that coincides with cooperative binding of multiple early transcription factors (including glucocorticoid receptor, retinoid X receptor, Stat5a, C/EBPβ and ‐δ) to transcription factor ‘hotspots’. Our results demonstrate that C/EBPβ marks a large number of these transcription factor ‘hotspots’ before induction of differentiation and chromatin remodelling and is required for their establishment. Furthermore, a subset of early remodelled C/EBP‐binding sites persists throughout differentiation and is later occupied by PPARγ, indicating that early C/EBP family members, in addition to their well‐established role in activation of PPARγ transcription, may act as pioneering factors for PPARγ binding.

DNA methylation status predicts cell type-specific enhancer activity

Cell‐selective glucocorticoid receptor (GR) binding to distal regulatory elements is associated with cell type‐specific regions of locally accessible chromatin. These regions can either pre‐exist in chromatin (pre‐programmed) or be induced by the receptor (de novo). Mechanisms that create and maintain these sites are not well understood. We observe a global enrichment of CpG density for pre‐programmed elements, and implicate their demethylated state in the maintenance of open chromatin in a tissue‐specific manner. In contrast, sites that are actively opened by GR (de novo) are characterized by low CpG density, and form a unique class of enhancers devoid of suppressive effect of agglomerated methyl‐cytosines. Furthermore, treatment with glucocorticoids induces rapid changes in methylation levels at selected CpGs within de novo sites. Finally, we identify GR‐binding elements with CpGs at critical positions, and show that methylation can affect GR–DNA interactions in vitro. The findings present a unique link between tissue‐specific chromatin accessibility, DNA methylation and transcription factor binding and show that DNA methylation can be an integral component of gene regulation by nuclear receptors.

C/EBP maintains chromatin accessibility in liver and facilitates glucocorticoid receptor recruitment to steroid response elements.

Mechanisms regulating transcription factor interaction with chromatin in intact mammalian tissues are poorly understood. Exploiting an adrenalectomized mouse model with depleted endogenous glucocorticoids, we monitor changes of the chromatin landscape in intact liver tissue following glucocorticoid injection. Upon activation of the glucocorticoid receptor (GR), proximal regions of activated and repressed genes are remodelled, and these remodelling events correlate with RNA polymerase II occupancy of regulated genes. GR is exclusively associated with accessible chromatin and 62% percent of GR‐binding sites are occupied by C/EBPβ. At the majority of these sites, chromatin is preaccessible suggesting a priming function of C/EBPβ for GR recruitment. Disruption of C/EBPβ binding to chromatin results in attenuation of pre‐programmed chromatin accessibility, GR recruitment and GR‐induced chromatin remodelling specifically at sites co‐occupied by GR and C/EBPβ. Collectively, we demonstrate a highly cooperative mechanism by which C/EBPβ regulates selective GR binding to the genome in liver tissue. We suggest that selective targeting of GR in other tissues is likely mediated by the combined action of cell‐specific priming proteins and chromatin remodellers.

Overlapping chromatin-remodeling systems collaborate genome wide at dynamic chromatin transitions

ATP-dependent chromatin remodeling is an essential process required for the dynamic organization of chromatin structure. Here we describe the genome-wide location and activity of three remodeler proteins with diverse physiological functions in the mouse genome: Brg1, Chd4 and Snf2h. The localization patterns of all three proteins substantially overlap with one another and with regions of accessible chromatin. Furthermore, using inducible mutant variants, we demonstrate that the catalytic activity of these proteins contributes to the remodeling of chromatin genome wide and that each of these remodelers can independently regulate chromatin reorganization at distinct sites. Many regions require the activity of more than one remodeler to regulate accessibility. These findings provide a dynamic view of chromatin organization and highlight the differential contributions of remodelers to chromatin maintenance in higher eukaryotes.

DNase footprint signatures are dictated by factor dynamics and DNA sequence.

Genomic footprinting has emerged as an unbiased discovery method for transcription factor (TF) occupancy at cognate DNA in vivo. A basic premise of footprinting is that sequence-specific TF-DNA interactions are associated with localized resistance to nucleases, leaving observable signatures of cleavage within accessible chromatin. This phenomenon is interpreted to imply protection of the critical nucleotides by the stably bound protein factor. However, this model conflicts with previous reports of many TFs exchanging with specific binding sites in living cells on a timescale of seconds. We show that TFs with short DNA residence times have no footprints at bound motif elements. Moreover, the nuclease cleavage profile within a footprint originates from the DNA sequence in the factor-binding site, rather than from the protein occupying specific nucleotides. These findings suggest a revised understanding of TF footprinting and reveal limitations in comprehensive reconstruction of the TF regulatory network using this approach.

Genome-wide profiles of CtBP link metabolism with genome stability and epithelial reprogramming in breast cancer

The C-terminal binding protein (CtBP) is a NADH-dependent transcriptional repressor that links carbohydrate metabolism to epigenetic regulation by recruiting diverse histone modifying complexes to chromatin. Here, global profiling of CtBP in breast cancer cells reveals that it drives epithelial to mesenchymal transition, stem cell pathways, and genome instability. CtBP expression induces mesenchymal and stem cell-like features while CtBP depletion or caloric restriction reverses gene repression and increases DNA repair. Multiple members of the CtBP-targeted gene network are selectively down-regulated in aggressive breast cancer subtypes. Differential expression of CtBP-targeted genes predicts poor clinical outcome in breast cancer patients, and elevated levels of CtBP in patient tumors predict shorter median survival. Finally, both CtBP promoter targeting and gene repression can be reversed by small molecule inhibition. These findings define broad roles for CtBP in breast cancer biology and suggest novel chromatin-based strategies for pharmacologic and metabolic intervention in cancer.

Wnt pathway mutations selected by optimal β-catenin signaling for tumorigenesis

Mutations in components of the Wnt/β‐catenin pathway are observed to be the earliest initiating event for most colorectal tumors. The majority of the mutations occur in the tumor suppressor adenomatous polyposis coli (APC), even though there are other genes that are capable of modulating the pathway activity. Moreover, the specific APC mutations associated in colon cancer indicate the possibility that the tumor selects for certain truncated forms of APC that partially retain its function, namely, inhibition of β‐catenin. We estimated the effects of various mutations in APC and other known mutations using a recent mathematical model of the Wnt pathway that was constructed to represent the conserved core molecular events. We provide evidence that APC mutations are selected not based on the maximal level of β‐catenin but rather based on distinct state of activity that appears to be optimal for the tissue‐specific tumorigenesis. This optimal level is determined by balancing β‐catenin signaling and the induction of Axin2 that acts as a potent negative feedback. The predominant pattern of APC mutations may provide synergistic oncogenic effects that promote colorectal tumorigenesis: the optimal signaling for cell survival and renewal, disrupted cell adhesion, chromosomal instability, and altered asymmetric division of stem cells.

Reprogramming the Chromatin Landscape: Interplay of the Estrogen and Glucocorticoid Receptors at the Genomic Level

Cross-talk between estrogen receptors (ER) and glucocorticoid receptors (GR) has been shown to contribute to the development and progression of breast cancer. Importantly, the ER and GR status in breast cancer cells is a significant factor in determining the outcome of the disease. However, mechanistic details defining the cellular interactions between ER and GR are poorly understood. We investigated genome-wide binding profiles for ER and GR upon coactivation and characterized the status of the chromatin landscape. We describe a novel mechanism dictating the molecular interplay between ER and GR. Upon induction, GR modulates access of ER to specific sites in the genome by reorganization of the chromatin configuration for these elements. Binding to these newly accessible sites occurs either by direct recognition of ER response elements or indirectly through interactions with other factors. The unveiling of this mechanism is important for understanding cellular interactions between ER and GR and may represent a general mechanism for cross-talk between nuclear receptors in human disease.

Transcriptional activation by the thyroid hormone receptor through ligand-dependent receptor recruitment and chromatin remodelling

A bimodal switch model is widely used to describe transcriptional regulation by the thyroid hormone receptor (TR). In this model, the unliganded TR forms stable, chromatin-bound complexes with transcriptional co-repressors to repress transcription. Binding of hormone dissociates co-repressors and facilitates recruitment of co-activators to activate transcription. Here we show that in addition to hormone-independent TR occupancy, ChIP-seq against endogenous TR in mouse liver tissue demonstrates considerable hormone-induced TR recruitment to chromatin associated with chromatin remodelling and activated gene transcription. Genome-wide footprinting analysis using DNase-seq provides little evidence for TR footprints both in the absence and presence of hormone, suggesting that unliganded TR engagement with repressive complexes on chromatin is, similar to activating receptor complexes, a highly dynamic process. This dynamic and ligand-dependent interaction with chromatin is likely shared by all steroid hormone receptors regardless of their capacity to repress transcription in the absence of ligand.

Dynamics of chromatin accessibility and long-range interactions in response to glucocorticoid pulsing

Although physiological steroid levels are often pulsatile (ultradian), the genomic effects of this pulsatility are poorly understood. By utilizing glucocorticoid receptor (GR) signaling as a model system, we uncovered striking spatiotemporal relationships between receptor loading, lifetimes of the DNase I hypersensitivity sites (DHSs), long-range interactions, and gene regulation. We found that hormone-induced DHSs were enriched within ± 50 kb of GR-responsive genes and displayed a broad spectrum of lifetimes upon hormone withdrawal. These lifetimes dictate the strength of the DHS interactions with gene targets and contribute to gene regulation from a distance. Our results demonstrate that pulsatile and constant hormone stimulations induce unique, treatment-specific patterns of gene and regulatory element activation. These modes of activation have implications for corticosteroid function in vivo and for steroid therapies in various clinical settings.