Sonia M. Hernandez-Divers

Angiographic, Anatomic and Clinical Technique Descriptions of A Subcarapacial Venipuncture Site for Chelonians

ABSTRACT A novel technique for chelonian venipunture is described. Angiographic studies using radio-opaque iohexol, static radiography, and video fluoroscopy were undertaken in several chelonian species. Latex injected dissections were also performed to confirm the vascular anatomy. These studies indicate that a clinically useful venipuncture site is present in the anterior dorsal midline at the junction of the common intercostal veins and the caudal cervical branch of the external jugular veins, located just craniad of the last mobile cervical vertebra.

Neoplasia of reptiles with an emphasis on lizards

Neoplasia is an important form of disease in saurians. According to previous reviews, the organs most commonly affected by neoplastic disease are the hematopoeitic system, the hepatic system, and the skin. However, our own review suggests that tumors of the musculoskeletal system are also prevalent. Neoplasia should be considered as a significant differential diagnosis when presented with a lizard that has nonspecific clinical signs. The previously described diagnostic techniques should be applied to obtain a rapid and accurate definitive diagnosis. As more cases of neoplastic disease in saurians are reported, a comprehensive study of the data, including detailed examination of environmental factors, may bring forth causative agents. According to Withrow, cancer is one of the leading killers of pet animals, and thus has become a real concern for dog and cat owners [67]. Given that most people will either know someone with cancer or experience cancer first hand, the general public is more educated than ever on neoplastic disorders. As veterinarians, it is important to become familiar with the neoplastic diseases in all species, and to be educated in tumor pathophysiology and treatment. The public expects veterinarians to be dependable sources of knowledge and compassion.

SURGICAL TECHNIQUE FOR INTRA-ABDOMINAL RADIOTRANSMITTER PLACEMENT IN NORTH AMERICAN RIVER OTTERS (LONTRA CANADENSIS)

Abstract Twenty-two free-ranging North American river otters (Lontra canadensis) from northern and eastern New York were captured and surgically implanted with radiotransmitters as part of a relocation project. The surgical technique involved an incision in the paralumbar fossa and transection through the abdominal musculature to introduce a radiotransmitter into the abdominal cavity. Two complications were encountered. Excessive hemorrhage occurred during one procedure. The otter was treated for blood loss with fluids, and it recovered uneventfully. Surgical incision infection occurred in a second animal. The otter was treated with metronidazole and enrofloxacin, and the wound was cleaned daily with chlorhexidine. The otter recovered uneventfully. Otters were released in western New York state. Postrelease monitoring via radiotelemetry revealed that the otters became established in their new ranges. The intra-abdominal implants did not affect their survival or reproductive potential.

ENDOSCOPIC SEX DETERMINATION AND GONADAL MANIPULATION IN GULF OF MEXICO STURGEON (ACIPENSER OXYRINCHUS DESOTOI)

Abstract Seventeen Gulf of Mexico sturgeons (Acipenser oxyrinchus desotoi) underwent endoscopic sex determination, gonadal biopsy, and various reproductive surgeries as part of a conservation development plan. The fish were anesthetized with tricaine methanesulfonate (MS-222) buffered with sodium bicarbonate and maintained on a recirculating water anesthesia circuit. A 6-mm Ternamian EndoTip Cannula, placed through the ventral midline, midway between pectoral and pelvic fins, permitted the introduction of a 5-mm telescope. Swim bladder aspiration and CO2 insufflation of the coelomic cavity provided excellent observation. Second and third cannulae were placed under direct visual control, lateral and cranial or caudal to the telescope cannula. Sex determination was successfully performed in all fish; however, five of 17 sturgeons (29%) required endoscopic gonadal biopsy to confirm sex. Bilateral ovariectomy or orchidectomy was successfully performed in three males and four females. Unilateral ovariectomy and bilateral ligation of the müllerian ducts using an extracorporeal suturing technique was accomplished in an additional three females. No apparent morbidity was associated with the anesthesia or endoscopic surgery in any fish. The ability to safely perform minimally invasive reproductive surgery in fish may have important management and conservation benefits.

RENAL EVALUATION IN THE HEALTHY GREEN IGUANA (IGUANA IGUANA): ASSESSMENT OF PLASMA BIOCHEMISTRY, GLOMERULAR FILTRATION RATE, AND ENDOSCOPIC BIOPSY

Abstract Plasma biochemistry, iohexol clearance, endoscopic renal evaluation, and biopsy were performed in 23 clinically healthy 2-yr-old green iguanas (Iguana iguana). Mean (±SD) values for packed cell volume (30 ± 3%), total protein (62 ± 7 g/L, 6.2 ± 0.7 g/dl), albumin (25 ± 2 g/L, 2.5 ± 0.2 g/dl), globulin (37 ± 6 g/L, 3.7 ± 0.6 g/ dl), total calcium (3.0 ± 0.2 mmol/L, 12.0 ± 0.7 mg/dl), ionized calcium (1.38 ± 0.1 mmol/L), phosphorus (1.32 ± 0.28 mmol/L, 4.1 ± 0.9 mg/dl), uric acid (222 ± 100 μmol/L, 3.8 ± 1.7 mg/dl), sodium (148 ± 3 mmol/L or mEq/ L), and potassium (2.6 ± 0.4 mmol/L or mEq/L) were considered within normal limits. Values for urea were low (<1.4 mmol/L, <4 mg/dl) with 70% of samples below the detectable analyzer range. After the i.v. injection of 75 mg/ kg iohexol into the caudal (ventral coccygeal or tail) vein, serial blood collections were performed over 32 hr. Iohexol assays by high-performance liquid chromatography produced plasma iohexol clearance graphs for each lizard. A three-compartment model was used to fit area under the curve values and to obtain the glomerular filtration rate (GFR) using regression analysis. The mean GFR (SD) was 16.56 ± 3.90 ml/kg/hr, with a 95% confidence interval of 14.78–18.34 ml/kg/hr. Bilateral endoscopic renal evaluation and biopsy provided tissue samples of excellent diagnostic quality, which correlated with tissue harvested at necropsy and evaluated histologically. None of the 23 animals demonstrated any adverse effects of iohexol clearance or endoscopy. Recommended diagnostics for the evaluation of renal function and disease in the green iguana include plasma biochemical profiles, iohexol clearance, endoscopic examination, and renal biopsy.

A Survey of Selected Avian Pathogens of Backyard Poultry in Northwestern Ecuador

Abstract As part of a larger ecologic research project and to collect disease prevalence information on backyard chicken flocks in northwestern Ecuador, 100 randomly selected birds from 10 flocks were examined, and blood, fecal, and ectoparasite samples were collected. The owners of the flocks were surveyed regarding flock management and disease history. Mean flock size was 20 birds (range, 1–75), and birds were kept for eggs and meat for either domestic consumption or local sale. Vaccination rates were low, with most owners (8 of 10) not vaccinating at all and some (2 of 10) vaccinating with one product either sporadically (1 of 10) or annually (1 of 10). None of the owners treated their chickens for parasites. Mortality rates of offspring were reported as high as 50% (range, 35%–50%) per flock. Deaths were associated with diseases described by owners as causing neurologic signs, sudden death, or respiratory problems. In addition, owners described epizootics of wartlike seasonal skin lesions, presumably but not confirmed as avian pox. Results of commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays on serum samples showed that birds had antibodies against infectious bursal disease virus (100%), Newcastle disease virus (97%), avian encephalomyelitis virus (92%), chicken anemia virus (90%), infectious bronchitis virus (85%), Mycoplasma gallisepticum (73%), and Mycoplasma synoviae (68%). Although 11% of birds showed the presence of antibodies for avian influenza, antibody levels were low in all but 4 birds. Most birds (90%) had feather mite infestations. Results of necropsy and fecal examinations found low levels of internal parasitism, with cestodes and ascarids identified as the most prevalent endoparasites. Ectoparasites identified were Dermanyssus gallinae and Ornithonyssus bursa. The poultry diseases to which sampled chickens had been exposed are likely the cause of the high mortality rate reported by flock owners. In these backyard poultry flocks in Ecuador, preventive medicine protocols that provide realistic cost-benefit advantages should be implemented. Because wild birds are susceptible to some poultry diseases, free-roaming chickens might be potential vectors of pathogens that could affect wild birds.

COMPARISON OF ISOFLURANE AND SEVOFLURANE ANESTHESIA AFTER PREMEDICATION WITH BUTORPHANOL IN THE GREEN IGUANA (IGUANA IGUANA)

Abstract The anesthetic and cardiopulmonary effects of butorphanol followed by sevoflurane or isoflurane were compared in 23 male green iguanas (Iguana iguana). Heart and respiratory rates were recorded before administration of butorphanol (2 mg/kg i.m.) and at 30 min after premedication. Anesthesia was induced in 12 iguanas (group 1) with isoflurane (5%) and in 11 iguanas (group 2) with sevoflurane (7%). Heart rate, relative arterial oxygen hemoglobin saturation (SpO2), and end-tidal CO2 concentrations (EtCO2) were measured every minute for the first 5 min and every 5 min thereafter. Arterial blood gas parameters were determined at 10 and 40 min after induction. Thirty minutes after butorphanol administration, no significant changes in heart and respiratory rate were seen as compared with baseline values. Quality and time to induction were superior with butorphanol–sevoflurane (6 ± 3 min) than with butorphanol– isoflurane (9 ± 4 min). Vaporizer settings during maintenance ranged between 1–3% and 2–4%, respectively. No significant differences in heart rate were noted between groups. In the sevoflurane group, SpO2 values were >90% throughout. Although SpO2 values were <90% at 20, 25, and 30 min in the isoflurane group, no significant differences in SpO2 values were seen over time and between groups. A significant decrease in EtCO2 with time was present in both groups, with no significant differences between the groups. At 10 and 40 min, arterial blood oxygen saturation values were >90% in both groups and no significant differences were noted with time and between groups. Recovery time was significantly longer in the butorphanol–isoflurane group (35 ± 27 min) than in the butorphanol–sevoflurane group (7 ± 4 min). The cardiopulmonary effects of butorphanol–isoflurane and butorphanol–sevoflurane assessed in this study are similar, and both inhalants appear to be safe and effective for induction and maintenance in the green iguana.

Investigation of shell disease in map turtles (Graptemys spp.).

Nineteen map turtles (Graptemys spp.) maintained under natural conditions were investigated because of chronic shell abnormalities. Animals were evaluated using a novel shell scoring system that divided the 54 scutes into six regions, with each region scored for lesion extent and severity, and summated to produce a total shell disease score (TSDS). Complete blood counts and various biochemistry analytes (total protein, albumin, globulin, urea, uric acid, 25-hydroxycholecalciferol, phosphorus, and ionized and total calcium) were measured. Under ketamine-medetomidine-morphine anesthesia, cytology tape strips and full thickness shell biopsies were collected aseptically for microbiologic, histologic (including scoring of biopsy quality), and ultrastructural evaluations. The TSDSs were low and ranged from 4 to 22 (median=9) out of a possible score of 54. There were no correlations between TSDS and any hematologic or biochemistry parameter. The histologic quality of shell biopsies was good, and normal shell structure, by both light and electron microscopy, is described. Small clefts and pitting lesions were noted in 8/19 sections. There was no evidence of erosion, ulceration, inflammation, or infectious agents, but algae and diatoms were observed. Six biopsies yielded aerobic isolates (Chryseobacterium indologenes, Aeromonas hydrophila, Ralstonia pickettii, and Morganella morganii), whereas 11 shell samples grew various clostridial anerobes. No fungal organisms were cultured. Although the etiology of the lesions described remains unknown, the use of a scoring system in conjunction with full thickness biopsies is suggested to help standardize investigations into chelonian shell disease in the future.

Diagnosis of skeletal injuries in Chelonians using computed tomography.

Abstract Computed tomography (CT) was used to diagnose the cause of lameness in a radiated tortoise (Geochelone radiata) and to determine the extent of shell and skeletal trauma in two snapping turtles (Chelydra serpentina). The radiated tortoises lameness was ultimately attributed to luxation of the right-shoulder joint that was not detected during plain film radiography. Axial and appendicular fractures were identified in one of the snapping turtles that were not detected during plain film radiography. In each patient, the information obtained during CT provided important diagnostic, therapeutic, or prognostic information.

Hematology of the Pascagoula map turtle (Graptemys gibbonsi) and the southeast Asian box turtle (Cuora amboinensis).

Abstract Turtle populations are decreasing dramatically due to habitat loss and collection for the food and pet market. This study sought to determine hematologic values in two species of turtles to help assess health status of captive and wild populations. Blood samples were collected from 12 individuals of the Pascagoula map turtle (Graptemys gibbonsi) and seven individuals of the southeast Asian box turtle (Cuora amboinensis) from the Savannah River Ecology Laboratory (South Carolina, USA). The hematologic data included hematocrit, total solids, erythrocyte count, leukocyte count, and differential and percentage leukocyte counts. Low hematocrit values and high basophil counts were found in both species. The basophil was the most abundant leukocyte in the Pascagoula map turtle (median = 0.80 × 109/L), whereas in the Southeast Asian box turtle the most abundant leukocyte was the heterophil (median = 2.06 × 109/L).