Sophie Bacq

The multiple faces of social entrepreneurship: A review of definitional issues based on geographical and thematic criteria

Social entrepreneurship has recently received greater recognition from the public sector, as well as from scholars. However, the lack of a unifying paradigm in the field has lead to a proliferation of definitions. Moreover, several approaches of the phenomenon, as well as different schools of thought, have emerged in different regions of the world. At first glance, because of different conceptions of capitalism and of the governments role, there seems to be a difference between the American and the European conceptions of social entrepreneurship. The objective of this paper is to clarify the concepts of ‘social entrepreneurship’, ‘social entrepreneur’ and ‘social entrepreneurship organization’ and to examine whether there is a transatlantic divide in the way these are conceived and defined. After having justified the need for a definition, we present the different geographical perspectives. North American and European literatures on social entrepreneurship are critically analysed by means of Gartners four differentiating aspects: the individual, the process, the organization and the environment. We show that there is no clear-cut transatlantic divide, but that, even within the US, different conceptions coexist. We propose definitions for the main concepts associated with social entrepreneurship and, finally, discuss implications for future research.

A Quantitative Comparison of Social and Commercial Entrepreneurship: Toward a More Nuanced Understanding of Social Entrepreneurship Organizations in Context

Abstract This study empirically addresses the differences between social and commercial entrepreneurship by using the largest available quantitative data source, namely the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) 2009 survey on social entrepreneurship in Belgium and The Netherlands. We use a combination of exploratory statistical analyses and qualitative techniques to generate propositions on the organizations and initiatives that social entrepreneurs are involved in and contrast them with our understanding of commercial entrepreneurs. This study contributes to answer the call for more quantitative research and simultaneously argues that, despite the potential contribution of large-scale data, the validity and reliability of measurement instruments cannot be seen independently from their particular context. With this important observation in mind, our findings indicate a predominance of younger social organizations or initiatives that rely to a great extent on government funding, whereas earned income is limited. Furthermore, social entrepreneurs show less ambition in terms of employment growth and progression to more mature stages of the entrepreneurial process compared with commercial entrepreneurs.

Hybrid Organizations: Origins, Strategies, Impacts, and Implications:

This introduction to the special issue on hybrid organizations defines hybrids, places them in their historical context, and introduces the articles that examine the strategies hybrids undertake to scale and grow, the impacts for which they strive, and the reception to them by mainstream firms. It aggregates insights from the articles in this special issue in order to examine what hybrid organizations mean for firms and practicing managers as they continue to grow in number and assume a variety of missions in developing and developed countries.

Cultural and Outcomes-Related Issues in Implementing an Interdisciplinary Cross-Campus Entrepreneurship Education Program

Abstract The aim of this paper is to present an interdisciplinary entrepreneurship education program (EEP) and to illustrate the potential learning objectives and the appropriate pedagogical methods of such a program. We also use it to illustrate issues in implementing cross-campus EEPs, which we classify into two categories: “cultural” and outcomes-related issues. The cultural issues are related to the problems inherent to interdisciplinarity, to the scientific legitimacy of entrepreneurship and to the fact that universities are oriented towards large, established firms. Potential solutions include developing short awareness-raising programs, making research more visible within ones own university and rewarding interdisciplinary initiatives. Outcomes-related issues consist of delayed effects in the impact of an EEP, selection processes biases and, sometimes, technology requirements excluding low-technology projects. To overcome these issues, the objectives of an EEP should not only be centered on the number of short-term business creations, but also on entrepreneurial activities, intentions and attitudes in their widest sense.

Can Social Entrepreneurship Researchers Learn from Family Business Scholarship? A Theory-Based Future Research Agenda

Abstract Searching for a balance between social mission and financial viability is a distinguishing feature of social business ventures. This quest might lead to complex challenges and conundrums, similar to those that arise in family businesses composed of closely intertwined systems of ‘family’ and ‘business’. Therefore, we question whether drawing on family business scholarship can help social entrepreneurship researchers move the field forward. Relying on a systems model, we conceptually frame three organizational challenges of social business venture management that can be addressed by insights from the family business literature: aligning multiple stakeholders, achieving competitive advantages and enacting sustainable solutions. To analyse these, we turn to three main theories drawn from family business research – organizational identity theory, resource-based view and stewardship theory. As a result, we formulate research questions relevant for future social entrepreneurship research. By doing so, we hope to offer social entrepreneurship scholars some guiding principles that are grounded on the experience of researchers who have analysed similar circumstances and challenges in other contexts.

PATTERNS IN SOCIAL ENTREPRENEURSHIP RESEARCH

Contents: PART I. OPPORTUNITIES IN THE FIELD OF SOCIAL ENTREPRENEURSHIP 1. Opportunities for Social Entrepreneurship: An Analysis of the Social Sector in Six Midwest US Areas John E. Clarkin, Dayle D. Deardurff and Anne Gallagher 2. A Multi-Stakeholder Perspective on Social Business Planning: Opportunity Discovery and Exploitation in the Case of Dynamo Camp Francesco Perrini and Clodia Vurro 3. Applying Disruptive Innovation Theory to Green-Tech Ventures Moriah Meyskens and Todd W. Moss PART II. THE KEY ROLE OF THE LEADER IN SOCIAL ENTREPRENEURSHIP 4. The Role of Personal Values in Social Entrepreneurship Michael Conger 5. Is Social Entrepreneurship Transformational Leadership in Action? Divya Bhutiani, Kimberly Flicker, Padmakumar Nair and Aard Groen PART III. A STAKEHOLDER APPROACH TO STUDY SOCIAL ENTREPRENEURSHIP 6. Sustaining the Stakeholder Engagement in the Social Enterprise: The Human Resource Architecture Rita Bissola and Barbara Imperatori 7. Stakeholder Salience and Disruptive Innovation in Social Entrepreneurship Todd W. Moss and Moriah Meyskens 8. Balancing Competition and Collaboration: How Early-Stage Social Ventures Succeed Aparna Katre, Paul Salipante, Barbara Bird and Sheri Perelli 9. The Dynamics and Long-Term Stability of Social Enterprise Dennis R. Young, Janelle A. Kerlin, Simon Teasdale and Jung-In Soh PART IV. THE LEGITIMATION OF SOCIAL ENTREPRENEURSHIP 10. Verifying Social Enterprises: Applying Lessons from Fair-Trade and Other Certifications Elizabeth Bennett, Donald Gregory, Robert Leaver and Kelly Ramirez 11. From Private to Public: Community Institutions, Corporate Social Action, and Sustainable Economic Development Stephen J. Mezias and Mohamad Fakhreddin

Perceived entrepreneurial munificence and entrepreneurial intentions: A social cognitive perspective

Adopting a social cognitive theory perspective, this article examines the factors that influence entrepreneurial intentions through the interaction between cognitive factors and perceived environmental munificence. Specifically, it introduces and demonstrates that the effect of one’s perceived ability to become an entrepreneur on the intention to engage in such a behaviour is contingent upon the perception of an environment rich in entrepreneurial munificence, in this case, within an incubator setting. Perceived entrepreneurial munificence also helps strengthen the relationship between risk-taking propensity and entrepreneurial self-efficacy. Results and implications for future research on entrepreneurial intentions at the interface between cognitive and environmental factors are discussed.

Interdisciplinarity in Cross-Campus Entrepreneurship Education

This Handbook explores the current state of university-wide entrepreneurship education programs and provides a comprehensive reference guide for the planning and implementation of an entrepreneurship curriculum beyond the business school environment. A variety of authors spanning five countries and multiple disciplines discuss the opportunities and universal challenges in extending entrepreneurship education to the sciences, performing arts, social sciences, humanities, and liberal arts environments. The Handbook is designed to assist educators in developing new programs and pedagogical approaches based upon the previous experiences of others who have forged this exciting new path.

Where Change Happens: Community-Level Phenomena in Social Entrepreneurship Research: JOURNAL OF SMALL BUSINESS MANAGEMENT

Social entrepreneurship (SE) research has advanced understanding of the dynamics and processes underlying positive social change. Yet only scant attention has been paid to where that change happens. We suggest that a community level of analysis is essential for understanding the extra‐organizational settings implied by the “social” in “social entrepreneurship.” We adopt a UNESCO‐inspired community typology including geographical communities, communities of interest or solidarity, communities of identity, and intentional communities as an organizing framework. Relying on a wealth creation perspective, we evaluate the social change that takes place by assessing four different types of capital created within communities—physical capital, financial capital, human capital, and social capital. Based on a review of 57 peer‐reviewed journals and 8 leading case study outlets, we find that examples of all four community types and all four capital types are evident in the SE literature. We discuss the implications of the community as a locus of SE activity and capital as an indicator of social impact in future research.

In pursuit of blended value in social entrepreneurial ventures: an empirical investigation

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to contribute to the understanding of the factors that influence social entrepreneurial ventures’ (SEVs) pursuit of a blended value approach. This paper predicts and examines that the mindset of SEV senior decision-makers leads them to perceive organisational goals differently. Design/methodology/approach – This paper tests the hypotheses on an original data set of 171 SEVs by means of discriminant analysis. Findings – The results suggest that social entrepreneurs who display an agency-oriented mindset tend to perceive organisational goals as being single: either social or financial. Conversely, social entrepreneurs who have a stewardship-oriented mindset tend to perceive organisational goals as blending both. The findings also underline that senior decision-makers’ mindsets in terms of governance are far from being uniform in SEVs. Research limitations/implications – The findings empirically contribute to the argument that agency principles do apply to broader conte...