Sotirios Grammatikos

Real-time debonding monitoring of composite repaired materials via electrical, acoustic, and thermographic methods

The electrical properties of composite materials have been thoroughly investigated recently for the detection and monitoring of damage in carbon fiber-reinforced polymers (CFRPs) under mechanical loading. Carbon nanotubes are incorporated in the polymer matrix of CFRPs for the enhancement of their electrical properties. The electrical properties have shown to be sensitive to the damage state of the material and hence their monitoring provides the profile of their structural deterioration. The aim of the paper is the cross-validation and benchmarking of an electrical potential change monitoring (EPCM) technique against acoustic emission (AE) and lock-in thermography (LT). All techniques successfully identified damage and its propagation. Thermography was more efficient in quantifying damage and describing dynamically the debond topology, as it provided full 2D imaging of the debond in real time. EPCM was successful in providing quantitative information on debond propagation and its directionality. AE provided consistent information on damage propagation. All techniques identified three stages in the fatigue life of the interrogated coupons. The representation of the fatigue behavior as a function of life fraction, the correlation of AE data with EPCM and LT data, and most importantly the consistent behavior of all tested coupons allowed for both the direct and indirect cross-correlation of all employed methodologies, which consistently identified all aforementioned fatigue life stages.

Innovative non-destructive evaluation and damage characterisation of composite aerostructures using thermography

Abstract The present study is concerned with the reliability and effectiveness of innovative non-destructive techniques for damage characterisation and evaluation of aerospace materials and structures. Infrared thermography (IrT) was used with the aim of assessing the integrity of bonded repair on aluminium substrates. For this purpose, artificial damage of various dimensions was introduced in composite laminates. These defects were successfully monitored with IrT using different imaging techniques. IrT was also employed for the online monitoring of the loaded structure. The real time evolution of progressive debonding owing to fatigue loading was monitored. No external thermal stimulation was necessary as the cyclic loading provided thermal excitation on the system. The experimental results provided evidence that the innovative technique was capable of qualitatively and quantitatively assessing the integrity of patched repairs. In other words, this technique can be efficiently employed for damage identification and quantification.

Monitoring strain and damage in multi-phase composite materials using electrical resistance methods

The variation of the electrical properties of fiber reinforced polymers when subjected to load offer the ability of strain and damage monitoring. This is performed via electrical resistance and electrical potential measurements. On the other hand Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) have proved to be an efficient additive to polymers and matrices of composites with respect to structural enhancement and improvement of the electrical properties. The induction of CNTs increases the conductivity of the matrix, transforming it to an antistatic or a conducting phase. The key issue of the structural and electrical properties optimization is the dispersion quality of the nano-scale in the polymer phase. Well dispersed CNTs provide an electrical network within the insulating matrix. If the fibers are conductive, the CNT network mediates the electrical anisotropy and reduces the critical flaw size that is detectable by the change in conductivity. Thus, the network performs as an inherent sensor in the composite structure, since every invisible crack or delamination is manifested as an increase in the electrical resistance. The scope of this work is to further exploit the information provided by the electrical properties with a view to identify strain variation and global damage via bulk resistance measurements. The aforementioned techniques were employed to monitor, strain and damage in fiber reinforced composite laminates both with and without conductive nanofillers.

Simultaneous acoustic and dielectric real time curing monitoring of epoxy systems

The attainment of structural integrity of the reinforcing matrix in composite materials is of primary importance for the final properties of the composite structure. The detailed monitoring of the curing process on the other hand is paramount (i) in defining the optimal conditions for the impregnation of the reinforcement by the matrix (ii) in limiting the effects of the exotherm produced by the polymerization reaction which create unwanted thermal stresses and (iii) in securing optimal behavior in matrix controlled properties, such as off axis or shear properties and in general the durability of the composite. Dielectric curing monitoring is a well known technique for distinguishing between the different stages of the polymerization of a typical epoxy system. The technique successfully predicts the gelation and the vitrification of the epoxy and has been extended for the monitoring of prepregs. Recent work has shown that distinct changes in the properties of the propagated sound in the epoxy which undergoes polymerization is as well directly related to the gelation and vitrification of the resin, as well as to the attainment of the final properties of the resin system. In this work, a typical epoxy is simultaneously monitored using acoustic and dielectric methods. The system is isothermally cured in an oven to avoid effects from the polymerization exotherm. Typical broadband sensors are employed for the acoustic monitoring, while flat interdigital sensors are employed for the dielectric scans. All stages of the polymerization process were successfully monitored and the validity of both methods was cross checked and verified.

Dispersion monitoring of carbon nanotube modified epoxy systems

The remarkable mechanical and electrical properties exhibited by carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have encouraged efforts to develop mass production techniques. As a result, CNTs are becoming increasingly available, and more attention from both the academic world and industry has focused on the applications of CNTs in bulk quantities. These opportunities include the use of CNTs as conductive filler in insulating polymer matrices and as reinforcement in structural materials. The use of composites made from an insulating matrix and highly conductive fillers is becoming more and more important due to their ability to electromagnetically shield and prevent electrostatic charging of electronic devices. In recent years, different models have been proposed to explain the formation of the conductive filler network. Moreover, intrinsic difficulties and unresolved issues related to the incorporation of carbon nanotubes as conductive fillers in an epoxy matrix and the interpretation of the processing behavior have not yet been resolved. In this sense, a further challenge is becoming more and more important in composite processing: cure monitoring and optimization. This paper considers the potential for real-time control of cure cycle and dispersion of a modified epoxy resin system commonly utilized in aerospace composite parts. It shows how cure cycle and dispersion control may become possible through realtime in-situ acquisition of dielectric signal from the curing resin, analysis of its main components and identification of the significant features.

Linear and non-linear electrical dependency of carbon nanotube reinforced composites to internal damage

Carbon nanotube (CNT) enhanced composite materials have attracted the interest of many scientists worldwide, especially in the aerospace industry. Fundamental to their qualification as materials in primary aircraft structures is the investigation of the relationship between their functional characteristics and their long-term behaviour under external combined loads. Conductive reinforcement at the nanoscale is by definition multifunctional as it may (i) enhance structural performance and (ii) provide structural health monitoring functionalities. It is now well established that reversible changes in the electrical resistance in nano composites are related to strain and irreversible monotonic changes are related to cumulative damage in the nano composite. In this study, the effect of damage in the hysteretic electrical behaviour of nano-enhanced reinforced composites was investigated. The nanocomposites were subjected to different levels of damage and their response to a cyclic electrical potential excitation was monitored as a function of frequency. Along with the dynamic electrical investigation, an Electrical Potential Mapping (EPM) technique was developed to pin-point artificial damage in CNT-enhanced matrix composite materials. The electrical potential field of the bulk material has shown to be characteristic of its internal structural state. The results of EPM technique were contradicted and validated with conventional C-scans.

Low-velocity impact damage identification using a novel current injection thermographic technique

Composite materials are widely used especially in the aerospace structures and systems. Therefore, inexpensive and efficient damage identification is crucial for the safe use and function of these structures. In these structures low-velocity impact is frequently the cause of damage, as it may even be induced during scheduled repair. Flaws caused by lowvelocity impact are dangerous as they may further develop to extended delaminations. For that purpose an effective inspection of defects and delaminations is necessary during the service life of the aerospace structures. Within the scope of this work, an innovative technique is developed based on current stimulating thermography. Electric current is injected to Carbon Fiber Reinforced Composite and aluminium (Al) plates with concurrent thermographic monitoring. For reference, both damaged and undamaged plates are inspected. Low-velocity impact damaged composite laminates at different energy levels are interrogated employing the novel technique. Live and pulse phase infrared thermography is employed for the identification of low-velocity impact damage at various energy levels while the electric current induces the transient thermal field in the vicinity of the defect. In all cases conventional ultrasonics (C-scan) were performed for the validation and assessment of the results of the innovative thermographic method.

Repair integrity monitoring of composite aerostructures using thermographic imaging

Bonded repair offers significant advantages over mechanically fastened repair schemes as it eliminates local stress concentrations and seals the interface between the mother structure and the patch. However, it is particularly difficult to assess the efficiency of the bonded repair as well as its performance during service loads. Thermography is a particularly attractive technique for the particular application as it is a non-contact, wide field non destructive method. Phase thermography is also offering the advantage of depth discrimination in layered structures such as in typical patch repairs particularly in the case where composites are used. Lock-in thermography offers the additional advantage of on line monitoring of the loaded structure and subsequently the real time evolution of any progressive debonding which may lead to critical failure of the patched repair. In this study composite systems (CFRP plates) with artificially introduced defects (PTFE) were manufactured. The aforementioned methods were employed in order to assess the efficiency of the thermographic technique. The obtained results were compared with typical C-scans.

Service and maintenance damage assessment of composite structures using various modes of infrared thermography

Carbon Fibre Reinforced Polymers (CFRPs) have been widely used recently in aerospace technology as primary materials. During aircraft operation the combination of thermo-mechanical loads, gradually degrades the material properties. Therefore, the development of reliable and cost effective damage inspection protocols throughout the service life of these structures is of primary importance for their safe function. Within the scope of this study, Infrared Thermography (IrT) was employed with the aim of assessing the structural integrity of composite aero-structures in both maintenance (off-line) and service (on-line) conditions. In the maintenance concept, IrT was employed in Lock-in mode to evaluate artificially induced damage in bonded repaired materials. For this purpose, various configurations of damage were investigated. In the service concept, IrT was employed for the continuous monitoring of loaded repaired structures in order to assess in real-time any progressive evolution of de-bonding which could lead to failure of the bonded patch repair. The experimental results provided evidence that IrT is capable of qualitative and quantitative field assessment of aero-structures.

Structural health monitoring of aerospace materials used in industry using electrical potential mapping methods

The increasing use of composite materials in aerostructures has prompted the development of an effective structural health monitoring system. A safe and economical way of inspection is needed in order for composite materials to be used more extensively. Critical defects may be induced during the scheduled repair which may degrade severely the mechanical properties of the structure. Low velocity impact LVI damage is one of the most dangerous and very difficult to detect types of structural deterioration as delaminations and flaws are generated and propagated during the life of the structure. In that sense large areas need to be scanned rapidly and efficiently without removal of the particular components. For that purpose, an electrical potential mapping was employed for the identification of damage and the structural degradation of aerospace materials. Electric current was internally injected and the potential difference was measured in order to identify induced damage in Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) structures. The experimental results of the method were compared with conventional C-scan imaging and evaluated.