Stefan E. Schulenberg

On the Measurement of Meaning: Logotherapy's Empirical Contributions to Humanistic Psychology

Meaningful living is a central focus of several humanistic theories and therapies. Measurement of life meaning meets many obstacles, including pragmatic concerns, such as measuring subjective experiences, and theoretical objections often offered by humanistic psychologists. The purpose of this article is to summarize empirical efforts related to logotherapy, a humanistic–existential paradigm, to illustrate the utility of assessment within the larger context of humanistic psychology. An overview of five logotherapeutic measures of meaning is provided. These measures include the Purpose in Life test (PIL), the Life Purpose Questionnaire (LPQ), the Seeking of Noetic Goals test (SONG), the Meaning in Suffering Test (MIST), and the Life Attitude Profile Revised (LAP–R). Directions for use of such measures in future research are also offered.

Logotherapy for clinical practice.

Logotherapy is based on the meaning-focused existential philosophy of Viktor E. Frankl (1905-1997). Numerous mental health professionals have been inspired by his most popular book, Mans Search for Meaning; however, many are unfamiliar with the depth of Frankls work. The purpose of this article is to discuss the tenets of logotherapy, including fundamental concepts, applicability and techniques, roles of the therapist, and assessment tools and new research findings. Logotherapy can readily be integrated with techniques that mental health professionals frequently use, and thus it has much to offer mental health professionals regardless of their theoretical orientation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved).

The equivalence of computerized and paper-and-pencil psychological instruments: Implications for measures of negative affect

The use of computerized psychological assessment is a growing practice among contemporary mental health professionals. Many popular and frequently used paper-and-pencil instruments have been adapted into computerized versions. Although equivalence for many instruments has been evaluated and supported, this issue is far from resolved. This literature review deals with recent research findings that suggest that computer aversion negatively impacts computerized assessment, particularly as it relates to measures of negative affect. There is a dearth of equivalence studies that take into account computer aversion’s potential impact on the measurement of negative affect. Recommendations are offered for future research in this area.

On the relationship between meaning in life and boredom proneness: examining a logotherapy postulate.

Logotherapy, developed by Viktor Frankl, posits that when one lacks meaning in life, boredom can result. Thus, the two constructs should be inversely related. To examine this relationship, 279 students (M = 19.8 yr., SD = 2.6; 179 women, 98 men) from a university in the southern United States were administered the Purpose of Life test and the Boredom Proneness Scale. As expected, a statistically significant negative correlation was found between the scores on the two scales (r = -.71). Directions for research are offered.

Psychotherapy and Movies: On Using Films in Clinical Practice

The purpose of this paper is to discuss the practice of recommending movies for clients to watch to assist them with their presenting complaints. Movies may be an efficient means of working with some clients who are difficult to reach emotionally through other methods. They also provide a powerful means of observational learning with opportunities to choose among different attitudes and behaviors. The pros and cons of this intervention are discussed, as well as initial suggestions on incorporating films into clinical practice. A cautious approach is recommended, as a systematic series of empirical investigations should be undertaken to more effectively inform clinical practice. Examples of areas to target for future research are provided.

The Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill and the Mississippi Gulf Coast: Mental health in the context of a technological disaster.

A significant percentage of disaster survivors experience negative psychological, physical, and social outcomes after a disaster. The current study advances the literature concerning the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill (the Gulf Oil Spill) while addressing weaknesses of previous research. The current study includes a clinical sample of 1,119 adults receiving mental health services in the coastal counties of Mississippi after the Gulf Oil Spill. The levels of clinical symptoms reported on the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS-21) and PTSD Checklist (PCL-S) were examined in relation to other domains of functioning potentially affected by the spill (finances, social relationships, and physical health). Participants reported substantial worsening of their functioning across each life domain. Furthermore, chronic problems in living related to the Gulf Oil Spill were significantly associated with higher levels of psychological distress, although the pattern differed somewhat for persons living above and below the poverty line, with lower income individuals reporting a higher level of overall distress. These data support the perspective that the experience of the Gulf Oil Spill is strongly associated with a deleterious effect on mental health symptoms.

The Meaning In Life Questionnaire: psychometric properties with individuals with serious mental illness in an inpatient setting.

OBJECTIVES This study examined the psychometric properties of the Meaning in Life Questionnaire (MLQ) with individuals with serious mental illness (SMI) in an inpatient setting (N = 96). The 10-item MLQ comprises Presence (perceived meaning) and Search (motivation to discover meaning) scales. DESIGN This study focused on the reliability and validity of the MLQ, reporting a range of data, including correlations and regression (predicting scores on a measure of psychopathology, the Brief Symptom Inventory). RESULTS Both MLQ scales yielded reliable scores. The current sample tended to report greater Presence, whereas Search means tended to be similar to those reported in other studies. The association between Presence and the Brief Symptom Inventory was not statistically significant. As for Search, people reporting greater motivation to discover meaning tended to report greater degrees of symptoms. The Presence and Search scales correlated at r =.12, which was unexpected given that most studies note an inverse relationship. However, this finding is considered in light of an interaction effect between Presence and Search when predicting psychological distress. CONCLUSIONS The current findings are supportive of the MLQs utility with individuals with SMI. Limitations and directions for research are offered.

A Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the Boredom Proneness Scale

Researchers have extensively investigated the factor structure of the Boredom Proneness Scale (BPS; R. Farmer & N.D. Sundberg, 1986) using exploratory factor analyses (EFAs), with inconsistent methodology and results. Thus, the purpose of the present study was to perform confirmatory factor analyses on the BPS to better determine the nature and extent of its underlying factor structure. Participants were 279 undergraduate students majoring in psychology at a university in the southern United States. None of the tested models derived from earlier studies was a reasonable fit to the present data; therefore, the present authors performed an EFA. Although 2 factors were revealed, these results, coupled with markedly different results from previous factor analytic studies of the BPS, suggest it is unlikely that the present factor structure is replicable. The BPS does not appear to have a replicable factor structure.

Empirical Research and Logotherapy

The purpose of this paper was to outline suggestions for future logotherapy applications and research. Empirical studies are available on logotherapy constructs, but additional research is sorely needed. The psychometrics of logotherapy measures need to be expanded. Carefully conducted experimental studies may aid in refining long-standing logotherapy concepts and supporting or refuting new ones.

Understanding empowerment, meaning, and perceived coercion in individuals with serious mental illness.

This study investigated the relationship among the variables of perceived coercion, psychiatric symptoms, empowerment, and meaning in an inpatient sample of individuals with serious mental illness (N=94). It was hypothesized that empowerment would be strongly related to the level of psychiatric symptoms and meaning, but not significantly related to coercion. Participants were recruited from inpatient facilities and completed the MacArthur Perceived Coercion Scale, the Empowerment Scale, the Brief Symptom Inventory, and the Life Purpose Questionnaire. The results suggested that empowerment is significantly associated with the presence of meaning in ones life as well as the level of psychiatric symptoms. Coercion was not significantly related to empowerment. Implications for clinical practice are discussed.