Stefan Vidal

Combining high biodiversity with high yields in tropical agroforests

Local and landscape-scale agricultural intensification is a major driver of global biodiversity loss. Controversially discussed solutions include wildlife-friendly farming or combining high-intensity farming with land-sparing for nature. Here, we integrate biodiversity and crop productivity data for smallholder cacao in Indonesia to exemplify for tropical agroforests that there is little relationship between yield and biodiversity under current management, opening substantial opportunities for wildlife-friendly management. Species richness of trees, fungi, invertebrates, and vertebrates did not decrease with yield. Moderate shade, adequate labor, and input level can be combined with a complex habitat structure to provide high biodiversity as well as high yields. Although livelihood impacts are held up as a major obstacle for wildlife-friendly farming in the tropics, our results suggest that in some situations, agroforests can be designed to optimize both biodiversity and crop production benefits without adding pressure to convert natural habitat to farmland.

Biocontrol of Pests of Apples and Pears in Northern and Central Europe: 2. Parasitoids

Predators of apple and pear pests in northern and central Europe and their use as biological control agents are reviewed. Many natural enemy species are specialized feeders and are able to respond to the population dynamics of particular pest species. The most oustandingly successful example of this is the use of phytoseiid mites, particularly Typhlodromus pyri , against phytophagous pest mites in apple. This mite management strategy is now widespread throughout European apple growing regions. Another example is the use of Anthocoris nemoralis against pear psyllids, Cacopsylla pyricola and C. pyri . Several groups of naturally occurring polyphagous predators, such as chrysopids, coccinellids, syrphids and spiders, also prey on a number of pest species in orchards, contributing generally to the reduction in pest populations. However, they are unlikely alone to prevent pest damage fully and reliably. In seeking biological control opportunities for a particular pest, these polyphagous natural enemies are unlikely to be a high priority. An exception, due to its abundance in orchards, is the common earwig, Forficula auricularia , although this predator may also cause some fruit injury. Another option to consider when reviewing possibilities for biological control in orchards is the introduction of biological control agents. The success rate of this approach, using arthropod predators to control pests of field crops, has been generally poor. Furthermore, mass production methods for predators are likely to be difficult and very costly. The biological supplies industry is constantly seeking culture techniques, largely for arthropod biological control agents of pests of protected crops. It is possible that some future advance may be relevant to orchards, though currently available predators do not appear promising. A careful economic appraisal of the feasibility of use of any potential biological control agent would be prudent before embarking on research.

Effect of inoculation method and plant growth medium on endophytic colonization of sorghum by the entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana

A study was conducted to determine the effect of inoculation method and plant growth medium on colonization of sorghum by an endophytic Beauveria bassiana. Colonization of leaves, stems, and roots by B. bassiana was assessed 20-days after application of the fungus. Although B. bassiana established as an endophyte in sorghum leaves, stems, and roots regardless of inoculation method (leaf, seed, or soil inoculation), plant growth medium (sterile soil, non-sterile soil, or vermiculite) apparently influenced colonization rates. Seed inoculation with conidia caused no stem or leaf colonization by the fungus in non-sterile soil but did result in substantial endophytic colonization in vermiculite and sterile soil. Leaf inoculation did not result in root colonization, regardless of plant growth medium. Endophytic colonization was greater in leaves and stems than roots. Endophytic colonization by B. bassiana had no adverse effects on the growth of sorghum plants. Leaf inoculation with a conidial suspension proved to be the best method to introduce B. bassiana into sorghum leaves for plants growing in either sterile or non-sterile soil. Further research should focus on the virulence of endophytic B. bassiana against sorghum stem borers.

Indirect interaction between an unspecialized endophytic fungus and a polyphagous moth

Despite their ubiquitous occurrence in natural and managed ecosystems, the role of unspecialized fungal endophytes in mediating insect-plant interactions have been largely ignored compared to clavicipitaceous fungal endophytes of grasses. We conducted laboratory and glasshouse experiments to test the hypothesis that an unspecialized fungal endophyte (Acremonium strictum) restricted to the root system of the host plant is able to mediate the interaction between a polyphagous herbivorous insect (Helicoverpa armigera) and its host plant (tomatoes, Lycopersicum esculentum). Our studies indicated a significant variation in the ability of inoculated and control plants to support the life history stages of the insect. Larvae reared on inoculated plants suffer significant reduction in growth rate, prolonged development times, suppressed moulting, and produced smaller pupae that were more likely to die, and emerged adults were less fecund compared to larvae reared on control plants. In glasshouse bioassays were larvae were allowed to graze freely, on inoculated plants only 20% survived to the final stadium compared to 54.5% on control plants. No significant differences in the amount of foliage consumed were found between inoculated and control plants, suggesting that A. strictum does not act as a feeding deterrent for H. armigera larvae. Larvae fed inoculated plants showed a significant increase in the relative consumption rate, although the approximate digestibility of ingested food, and efficiency with which both ingested food and digested food was converted to insect biomass decreased during the same period. In addition to reduced efficiency of food utilization, surviving larvae on inoculated plants displayed a significant reduction in relative growth rate. We hypothesized that alterations in phytosterol composition mediated by infection of the fungal endophyte, may explain the reduced larval performance on inoculated plants. Obwohl unspezialisierte endophytische Pilze in allen Okosystemen weit verbreitet und haufig sind, blieb ihre Rolle bei Interaktionen zwischen Pflanzen und herbivoren Insekten bisher weitgehend unberucksichtigt. In Labor- und Gewachshausexperimenten haben wir die Hypothese untersucht, dass ein unspezialisierter Wurzelendophyt (Acremonium strictum) die Wechselwirkungen zwischen einem polyphagen Insekt (Helicoverpa armigera) und Tomatenpflanzen (Lycopersicum esculentum) beeinflussen kann. Die Entwicklung der Insekten weist deutliche Unterschiede zwischen inokulierten und Kontrollpflanzen auf. Larven, die auf inokulierten Pflanzen gehalten wurden, zeigten gegenuber solchen von Kontrollpflanzen jeweils signifikant verringerte Wachstumsraten, verlangerte Entwicklungszeiten, verzogerte Hautungen, und bildeten kleinere Puppen aus, welche eine hohere Mortalitat aufwiesen. Die geschlupften Weibchen hatten zudem eine verringerte Fekunditat. In Frassversuchen im Gewachshaus uberlebten an inokulierten Pflanzen nur 20% der Larven wahrend an Kontrollpflanzen 54,5% uberlebten. Da die gefressene Biomasse in beiden Varianten gleich war, ist eine deterrente Wirkung des Pilzes auszuschliesen. Vielmehr deuten signifikante Veranderungen der Fras- und Verwertungsindices sowie die niedrigeren relativen Wachstumsraten darauf hin, das sich die Nahrungsqualitat auf inokulierten Pflanzen verschlechtert hatte. Wir diskutieren die Hypothese, dass der Phytosterolgehalt, welcher durch eine Inokulation der Pflanzen verandert wird, zu den verschlechterten Entwicklungsbedingungen der Larven gefuhrt hat.

Plant biodiversity and vegetation structure in traditional cocoa forest gardens in southern Cameroon under different management

Floristic surveys were performed in 17 traditional cocoa forest gardens under different management regimes in the humid forest area of southern Cameroon, to assess the impact of intensification on plant biodiversity. This impact was evaluated by analyzing species richness, vegetation structure, carbon sequestration and above ground biomass. We hypothesize that: (a) plant (tree and herbs) species richness is negatively correlated to management intensity and (b) vegetational density predictably change with management intensity. Our results show that management as practiced in traditional cocoa forest gardens in southern Cameroon following a gradient of intensification from extensive cocoa forest gardens with high floristic diversity to intensive ones strongly impacts plant diversity, plant biomass and to some extend carbon storage with possible negative consequences on biodiversity. Great differences in species richness, species composition, and, for trees, diameter at breast height and basal area were evident among the five types of traditional cocoa forest garden systems investigated. In terms of plant species richness, we found a decreasing gradient of plant species numbers from extensive forest gardens to intensive ones. This study also highlights the importance of the Management Index for quantifying differences in the management; this index could be used to standardize certification procedures and assess conservation progress and success. Our findings support the idea that traditional cocoa forest gardens can help to protect many forest species, sustains smallholder production and offer more scope for conservation of biodiversity, at both species-level and landscape-level. Moreover, diverse traditional cocoa forest gardens may help in regulating pests and diseases and allow for efficient adaptation to changing socioeconomic conditions.

Resistance of maize varieties to the maize weevil Sitophilus zeamais (Motsch.) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

of susceptibility was used to group the varieties. The variety, ‘BHQP-542’, had the least index of susceptibility and was regarded as resistant. The varieties, ‘Katumani’, ‘Melkasa-I’, ‘Melkasa-II’, ‘Melkasa-III’, ‘Coree’, ‘BH-541’, ‘BH-660’, ‘BH-540’, ‘Rare-I’, ‘Awasa-511’, ‘ACV3’ and ‘ACV6’, were moderately resistant. Weevils fed with the resistant variety produced low numbers of F1 progeny, had a high median developmental time and a low percentage of seed damage and seed weight loss. Maize varieties with a high F1 progeny tended to have a short median developmental time. An increasing number of F1 progeny resulted in an increasing seed damage and seed weight loss. We found an inverse relationship between the susceptibility index and percent mortality and median developmental time; however, the numbers of F1 progeny, percent seed damage and seed weight loss were positively related with the susceptibility index. The use of resistant varieties should be promoted in managing S. zeamais in stored maize under subsistence farming conditions in Africa.

Stem‐boring insects of fragmented Calamagrostis habitats: herbivore–parasitoid community structure and the unpredictability of grass shoot abundance

Abstract.1. Communities of stem‐boring insects attacking the grass Calamagrostis epigeios (L.) Roth were analysed from twenty‐five pure stands of C. epigeios differing in area and isolation. Insect communities comprised nine phytophagous and eighteen entomophagous species. Most abundant herbivores (attacking > 1% of all shoots) were Tetramesa eximia (Giraud) (Hym. Eurytomidae), Eurytoma sp. (Hym. Eurytomidae), Lasioptera calamagrostidis (Rübs.) (Dipt. Cecidomyiidae), and Eriopeltis sp. (Hom. Pseudococcidae). About 28% of the twenty‐seven species were monophagous, 61% oligophagous (restricted to Poaceae), and 11% polyphagous. Although herbivores generally attacked thick shoots, species‐specific differences in the attacked mean diameter were found.2. The main purpose of this study was to analyse the relative effects of area, isolation and unpredictability of available food resources on the abundance of herbivores, parasitoids and resulting tritrophic effects. Variability of shoot abundance varied greatly between years, and even more between habitats within the same year. On average, shoot density per habitat increased or decreased 2.4‐fold between succeeding years.3. Variability of grass shoot abundance was not related to habitat characteristics such as area, isolation, biomass, shoot density, changes in area or shoot density between years, or shoot features like internode number or diameter, but was negatively influenced by shading of trees. Similarly, habitat area or isolation did not correlate with other habitat features.4. Grass shoot abundance was the most important predictor of species abundance and attack rate of herbivores. In contrast to expectations, area and isolation of habitats did not explain differences in species richness, and only influenced abundance of three species. In addition, even the experimental removal of all grass shoots (and thereby, of all stem‐boring insects) from five habitats in winter did not negatively influence colonization the following year. These results suggest a surprisingly high mobility of this rather specialized community of stem‐boring insects that appeared to superimpose on area and isolation effects. Unpredictability of grass shoot abundance was presumably the main selection pressure for the obviously high dispersal abilities of the Calamagrostis insects.5. Per cent parasitism was mainly influenced by the percentage of attacked shoots. Parasitism of T. eximia by its major parasitoid also correlated with habitat connectivity, emphasizing the hypothesis that a continuum of habitats should be particularly favourable for the third trophic level.

A review of the natural enemies of beetles in the subtribe Diabroticina (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae): implications for sustainable pest management

Abstract Diabroticina is a speciose subtribe of New World Chrysomelidae (Subfamily Galerucinae: Tribe Luperini) that includes pests such as corn rootworms, cucumber beetles and bean leaf beetles (e.g. Diabrotica, Acalymma, Cerotoma species). The evolution and spread of pesticide resistance, the European invasion of Diabrotica v. virgifera LeConte, and possible development of resistance due to the large-scale deployment of Diabrotica-active Bt maize in North America have generated a sense of urgency in developing biological control options against Diabroticina pests. In the present study, we review available knowledge on biological control options, including 290 publications on natural enemy–Diabroticina associations in the New World. Several natural enemy species or groups appear to be promising candidates for control strategies with different ecological rationales. We propose that future research should pursue: (1) development of inundative biological control products, particularly mass-produced entomopathogenic nematodes and fungi, (2) understanding of specific natural enemies of Diabroticina larvae throughout the Americas and of adults particularly in higher altitudes of Central America or northern South America including potential classical biological control agents against D. v. virgifera; (3) enhancement of natural enemies through cultural practices, i.e., reduced tillage, reduced weed control, cover crops, diversified crop rotations or soil amendments. Research and action must be coordinated to accelerate the exploration of biological control options.

Fungal endophyte negative effects on herbivory are enhanced on intact plants and maintained in a subsequent generation.

1. Fungal endophytes are ubiquitous associates of virtually all plant species. Although many studies have focused on the role of these microorganisms as mediators of plant–herbivore interactions, these studies have usually been conducted using short‐term experiments.

Nutritional resources used by the invasive maize pest Diabrotica virgifera virgifera in its new South-east-European distribution range

Food utilization by adults of the invasive maize (Zea mays L.) (Poaceae) pest western corn rootworm (WCR; Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) was investigated in the south‐eastern part of its new European distribution range. At weekly intervals over a 10‐week period, 10 beetles per field were collected from six fields that had a high abundance of flowering weeds and six fields with a low abundance of flowering weeds, with the aim of understanding adult feeding behaviour in Europe and comparing this behaviour with North American WCR. Gut content analysis was performed to determine the use of maize tissue and weed pollen with regard to maize phenology. Furthermore, all pollen found within the gut was quantified and identified to plant species level. The use of maize tissue by adult WCR changed over time according to maize phenology. Pollen originating from plants other than maize was used more frequently as the maize matured. Adults fed on pollen from 19 of 25 different plant species found in maize fields and showed a preference for the pollen of specific weeds. Pollen from weed species was found more often in beetles from fields with a high abundance of weeds compared to beetles from fields with a low abundance of weeds. Females consumed greater amounts of pollen than males, the latter feeding on a wider diversity of host plants. The pollen resources used by adult WCR in Hungary were more diverse compared to WCR in the USA, which may contribute to the invasion success of WCR in Europe.