Stefanie Heck

A distinct modulating domain in glucocorticoid receptor monomers in the repression of activity of the transcription factor AP-1.

Steroid receptors activate and repress genes. An important class of genes that they repress is controlled by the transcription factor AP‐1. The activity of AP‐1 is inhibited by the receptor, a mechanism exploited for the therapy of various forms of pathological hyperproliferation in humans. We show here by point mutations in the DNA binding domain and by the choice of steroid ligands that repression of AP‐1 activity and transactivation functions of the glucocorticoid receptor (GR) are separable entities. While DNA binding and activation of glucocorticoid‐regulated promoters require GR dimerization, we present data that suggest that repression is a function of GR monomers.

Transcriptional cross-talk, the second mode of steroid hormone receptor action

Abstract Physiological and therapeutic activities of glucocorticoids and other steroid hormones are mediated by the family of steroid hormone receptors. In addition to the classical mode of receptor action which involves binding as a dimer to regulatory sequences in target gene promoters and subsequent activation of transcription, a second mode of action is based predominantly on protein-protein interactions. As the paradigm of this so-called transcriptional cross-talk, the glucocorticoid receptor (GR) and the AP-1 transcription factor interact on target gene promoters which contain only a binding site for either one of the two transcription factors. Most frequently negative interference of both factors with each other’s activity has been observed, for example, when AP-1 is composed of c-Fos and c-Jun; however, synergism is also possible under cell-specific conditions and when AP-1 is a homodimer of c-Jun. Since the detection of the GR/AP-1 cross-talk numerous other examples of transcription factor interactions have been described. Many members of the nuclear hormone receptor superfamily, including class II receptors, have been shown to participate in such cross-talk. Moreover, the transcription factor families of NF-κB/Rel as well as Stat, Oct, and C/EBP are engaged in cross-talk with steroid receptors. Despite the identification of a multitude of target genes which appear to be regulated by this type of transcription factor interaction, the exact molecular mechanism of the cross-talk has not yet been elucidated. This review discusses the current models to explain the molecular events of transcription factor cross-talk. Concepts are emphasized which suggest that the classical and the cross-talk mode of steroid receptor action can be triggered separately by the choice of specific ligands. A final section summarizes the partially contradictory data which assign a certain type of receptor action to a biological response particularly in the immune system.

IκBα-independent downregulation of NF-κB activity by glucocorticoid receptor

IκBα is an inhibitor protein that prevents nuclear transport and activation of the transcription factor NF‐κB. In acute inflammation, NF‐κB is activated and increases the expression of several pro‐inflammatory cytokine and chemokine genes. Glucocorticoids counteract this process. It has been proposed that the glucocorticoid‐dependent inhibition of NF‐κB activity is mediated by increased synthesis of IκBα which should then sequester NF‐κB in an inactive cytoplasmic form. Here, we show by the use of a mutant glucocorticoid receptor and steroidal ligands that hormone‐induced IκBα synthesis and inhibition of NF‐κB activity are separable biochemical processes. A dimerization‐defective glucocorticoid receptor mutant that does not enhance the IκBα level is still able to repress NF‐κB activity. Conversely, glucocorticoid analogues competent in enhancing IκBα synthesis do not repress NF‐κB activity. These results demonstrate that increased synthesis of IκBα is neither required nor sufficient for the hormone‐mediated downmodulation of NF‐κB activity.

RAP46 Is a Negative Regulator of Glucocorticoid Receptor Action and Hormone-induced Apoptosis

RAP46 was first identified by its ability to bind the glucocorticoid receptor. It has since been reported to bind several cellular proteins, including the anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-2, but the biological significance of these interactions is unknown. Here we show that RAP46 binds the hinge region of the glucocorticoid receptor and inhibits DNA binding and transactivation by the receptor. We further show that overexpression of RAP46 in mouse thymoma S49.1 cells inhibits glucocorticoid-induced apoptosis. Conversely, glucocorticoid-induced apoptosis and transactivation were enhanced after treating S49.1 cells with the immunosuppressant rapamycin, which down-regulates cellular levels of BAG-1, the mouse homolog of RAP46. The effect of rapamycin can, however, be overcome by overexpression of RAP46. These results together identify RAP46 as a protein that controls glucocorticoid-induced apoptosis through its negative regulatory action on the transactivation property of the glucocorticoid receptor.

I kappaB alpha-independent downregulation of NF-kappaB activity by glucocorticoid receptor.

IκBα is an inhibitor protein that prevents nuclear transport and activation of the transcription factor NF‐κB. In acute inflammation, NF‐κB is activated and increases the expression of several pro‐inflammatory cytokine and chemokine genes. Glucocorticoids counteract this process. It has been proposed that the glucocorticoid‐dependent inhibition of NF‐κB activity is mediated by increased synthesis of IκBα which should then sequester NF‐κB in an inactive cytoplasmic form. Here, we show by the use of a mutant glucocorticoid receptor and steroidal ligands that hormone‐induced IκBα synthesis and inhibition of NF‐κB activity are separable biochemical processes. A dimerization‐defective glucocorticoid receptor mutant that does not enhance the IκBα level is still able to repress NF‐κB activity. Conversely, glucocorticoid analogues competent in enhancing IκBα synthesis do not repress NF‐κB activity. These results demonstrate that increased synthesis of IκBα is neither required nor sufficient for the hormone‐mediated downmodulation of NF‐κB activity.

Interaction of the Ubc9 human homologue with c-Jun and with the glucocorticoid receptor

Glucocorticoid hormones convert the glucocorticoid receptor (GR) from an inactive cytosolic complex to a nuclear form that regulates transcription. Binding of GR to palindromic DNA-recognition sites (hormone response elements) leads to activated target gene transcription. GR also exerts negative actions on transcription, e.g., by interfering with the function of several other transcription factors such as AP-1, NK-kappa B, CREB, and Oct-1. Physical interactions of GR with AP-1 subunits are readily detectable but do not seem sufficient since nonrepressing GR mutants still interact in vitro, so that specific conformational changes and/or interactions with additional partner proteins may be required for negative action. In an attempt to find such partner proteins, we defined regions of c-Jun and GR essential for mutual interference and used in those a yeast two-hybrid screen for interacting proteins. Repeatedly we isolated overlapping cDNA sequences of one protein interaction with both c-Jun and GR. This protein does not interact with c-Fos or a non-repressing GR mutant and expressed in mammalian cells does not substantially affect AP-1 or GR activity. Interestingly, however, the protein rescues yeast cells from the toxic effects of the GR fragment used for screening. The protein represents the human homologue of the yeast E2 ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme, Ubc9; its specific interactions with both GR and c-Jun, but not mutant GR, suggest that it may exert physiologic regulatory functions.

IKAPPA BALPHA -INDEPENDENT DOWNREGULATION OF NF-KAPPA B ACTIVITY BY GLUCOCORTICOID RECEPTOR

IκBα is an inhibitor protein that prevents nuclear transport and activation of the transcription factor NF‐κB. In acute inflammation, NF‐κB is activated and increases the expression of several pro‐inflammatory cytokine and chemokine genes. Glucocorticoids counteract this process. It has been proposed that the glucocorticoid‐dependent inhibition of NF‐κB activity is mediated by increased synthesis of IκBα which should then sequester NF‐κB in an inactive cytoplasmic form. Here, we show by the use of a mutant glucocorticoid receptor and steroidal ligands that hormone‐induced IκBα synthesis and inhibition of NF‐κB activity are separable biochemical processes. A dimerization‐defective glucocorticoid receptor mutant that does not enhance the IκBα level is still able to repress NF‐κB activity. Conversely, glucocorticoid analogues competent in enhancing IκBα synthesis do not repress NF‐κB activity. These results demonstrate that increased synthesis of IκBα is neither required nor sufficient for the hormone‐mediated downmodulation of NF‐κB activity.

Estrogen-related receptor α expression and function is associated with the transcriptional coregulator AIB1 in breast carcinoma

The significance of the estrogen-related receptor alpha (ERRalpha) as prognostic marker for poor clinical outcome in breast carcinoma has recently been reported. Transcriptional activity of nuclear receptors such as ERRalpha depends on coregulatory proteins. Thus, we compared the expression of different receptors, coregulators, and target genes on RNA and protein level in identical primary breast tumor samples (n = 48). We found a positive correlation between the transcripts of ERRalpha and AIB1 (amplified in breast cancer-1), a coactivator overexpressed in breast cancers and associated with resistance to antihormone treatment. These data were confirmed on protein level, studying an independent patient collection (n = 257). Expression of the estrogen-regulated gene pS2 was associated with ERRalpha only in tumors, where estrogen receptor (ERalpha) expression was low or absent. In ERalpha high expressing tumors, no correlation of ERRalpha and pS2 was observed. AIB1 interacts directly with ERRalpha as shown by fluorescence-resonance energy transfer, mammalian two-hybrid, and coimmunoprecipitation assays with endogenous proteins. It enhances ERRalpha transcriptional activity in ERalpha-negative breast cancer cell lines as shown in functional reporter gene assays. Blocking ERRalpha with an inverse agonist abolished interaction and coactivation by AIB1. Recruitment of both proteins to ERRalpha target gene promoters further supports the significance of their interaction. Our findings identify AIB1 as functionally relevant cofactor for ERRalpha in breast carcinoma. ERRalpha/AIB1 complexes may control estradiol-regulated genes in a hormone-independent manner. Accordingly, ERRalpha might be a rewarding target for treatment of endocrine-resistant tumors.