Stéphanie Barbu

Boys and Girls on the Playground: Sex Differences in Social Development Are Not Stable across Early Childhood

Sex differences in human social behaviors and abilities have long been a question of public and scientific interest. Females are usually assumed to be more socially oriented and skilful than males. However, despite an extensive literature, the very existence of sex differences remains a matter of discussion while some studies found no sex differences whereas others reported differences that were either congruent or not with gender stereotypes. Moreover, the magnitude, consistency and stability across time of the differences remain an open question, especially during childhood. As play provides an excellent window into childrens social development, we investigated whether and how sex differences change in social play across early childhood. Following a cross-sectional design, 164 children aged from 2 to 6 years old, divided into four age groups, were observed during outdoor free play at nursery school. We showed that sex differences are not stable over time evidencing a developmental gap between girls and boys. Social and structured forms of play emerge systematically earlier in girls than in boys leading to subsequent sex differences in favor of girls at some ages, successively in associative play at 3–4 years, cooperative play at 4–5 years, and social interactions with peers at 5–6 years. Preschool boys also display more solitary play than preschool girls, especially when young. Nevertheless, while boys catch up and girls move on towards more complex play, sex differences in social play patterns are reversed in favor of boys at the following ages, such as in associative play at 4–5 years and cooperative play at 5–6 years. This developmental perspective contributes to resolve apparent discrepancies between single-snapshot studies. A better understanding of the dynamics of sex differences in typical social development should also provide insights into atypical social developments which exhibit sex differences in prevalence, such as autism.

The mere perception of eye contact increases arousal during a word-spelling task

Abstract Eye contact is a highly salient and fundamentally social signal. This entails that the mere perception of direct gaze may trigger differentiated neurobehavioral responses as compared to other gaze directions. We investigated this issue using a visual word-spelling task where faces under different gaze directions and head orientations were displayed on-screen concomitantly with the words. We show evidence for automatic increase of skin conductance response (SCR), indicative of arousal, associated with the perception of direct gaze as compared to both averted gaze and closed eyes. Moreover, the perception of averted gaze was associated with an increase of electromyographic (EMG) corrugator activity. These effects were observed in two demanding word-spelling tasks, but not in a simple letter decision task. We propose to interpret these findings in terms of the social value of direct and averted gaze and conclude that some circumstances such as the task at hand may be essential for uncovering the neurobehavioral responses associated with the perception of others’ gaze.

The acquisition of sociolinguistic variation: Looking back and thinking ahead

Abstract Although developmental sociolinguistics is a relatively under-researched field, several studies have described childrens use of sociolinguistic variables and some have suggested theoretical accounts for the learning mechanisms underpinning their acquisition. Taking a historical point of view, this paper aims firstly to provide an exhaustive review of the studies focused on phonological variables over the past four decades. In the second section, we then deal with three theoretical approaches to the acquisition of variation: abstract variable rule formation, case-by-case concrete learning and exemplar theory. We discuss the main assumptions of these accounts, such as the role of input frequency, abstraction and generalization processes and the construction of the relationship between linguistic and social information. Finally, in the light of this discussion and in line with the available results, we argue in favor of the usage-based theory of language acquisition (Tomasello 2003) as a general framework including exemplar theory and explaining how children learn variable and categorical linguistic forms as well as their social use.

Age- and sex-dependent contact call usage in Japanese macaques

The question of the flexibility of nonhuman primate vocal communication remains open today, especially due to early evidence of innately guided vocal production. However, socially determined flexibility can be found when the debate is moved from vocal structure to vocal usage. While increasing evidence shows that the audience quality influences the vocal behaviour of nonhuman primates, the impact of the caller’s characteristics has been far less studied. Here, we tested the influence of an individual’s sex and age on the usage style of contact calls. We recorded contact calls of male and female Japanese macaques and compared the vocal usage styles of approximately 1-year-old juveniles with those of adults at various ages. We found, first, important differences in call usage style between juveniles and adults, the latter forming temporally ruled vocal exchanges respecting an interindividual turntaking principle. Moreover, sex differences were substantial in adults but nonexistent in juveniles. Finally, age continued to influence female vocal behaviour during adulthood, whereas dominance rank explained differences between adult males. Two nonexclusive mechanisms can explain this phenomenon, that is, a socially guided development of the appropriate form of calling versus an emotional maturation to control call emission, opening new lines of research on nonhuman primate vocal development of appropriate usages.

Language evaluation and use during early childhood: Adhesion to social norms or integration of environmental regularities?

Abstract Whether social uses of language, in concert with their acquisition, are driven by the awareness of the social value assigned to linguistic variants remains unanswered. The present study examines how 185 French native speakers, aged from 2 to 6 years from different social backgrounds, produce and evaluate a well-known French phonological alternation, the liaison: obligatory liaisons, which are categorical and do not vary sociolinguistically for adults, and variable liaisons, which are a sociolinguistic variable and are more frequently produced by higher-class adults. Different developmental and social patterns were found for obligatory and variable liaisons. Childrens productions of obligatory liaisons were related to their judgments when 3–4 years old, regardless of the childrens social backgrounds. However, a developmental gap was observed between higher- and lower-class children that appeared earlier in production than in evaluation. For variable liaisons, childrens productions were related to their judgments, irrespective of their social backgrounds, at 4–5 years. Social differences appeared in both childrens productions and judgments a year later. Although the ability to evaluate different linguistic forms emerges at an early developmental stage, the awareness of the social value of the variants does not seem to precede the ability to select the standard varieties in formal situations.

Some aspects of cognitive and social development in children with cochlear implant

children with cochlear implant’ SIR–In children with profound bilateral deafness, the cochlear implant is the most suitable way of providing access to sound. This is a device equipped with electrodes which are surgically introduced into the inner ear. The implant receives sound information from the outside world, and the electrodes stimulate fibres of the auditory nerve. This surgical technique has been used since 1980 in adult patients and since 1990 in individuals aged 2 to 17 years (US Food and Drug Administration approval dates). A cochlear implant undoubtedly permits access to spoken language and facilitates integration into the social environment. As a result, the difficulties experienced by children with profound deafness in acquiring pragmatic skills and tacit knowledge relating to the social world should diminish after receiving an implant. Similarly, studies of some aspects of cognitive capabilities comparing children with normal hearing and children with hearing impairment have revealed that the latter experience difficulties at the cognitive level. Whether at the spatial construction level, in categorization or in temporal structuring, some hearing impaired children exhibit developmental deficiencies. The mastery of a structured language, whether oral or signed, seems to be a key factor in knowledge structuring. Few studies have investigated the social and cognitive development of children using cochlear implants. This is why we chose to monitor some aspects of cognitive and social abilities in pre-lingual, children with profound deafness who had received an implant over a period of 2 years. We investigated two hypotheses: Hypothesis 1: Research into the development of communication abilities in children with severe and profound deafness children has revealed the difficulty they experience in acquiring language activities on the one hand and, on the other, the tacit knowledge which governs interactions in the social world. We therefore hypothesized that implantation, which gives these children access to sound information, would be accompanied by an increase in communication skills and an extension of tacit knowledge concerning the social world. Hypothesis 2: Cognitive deficiencies observed in some children with hearing impairment compared with children with normal hearing allowed us to hypothesize that cochlear implantation, access to the sound environment and to verbal language would help implanted children perform better in some aspects of cognitive abilities. The population consisted of 20 pre-lingual, participants with profound deafness (11 males and 9 females) who were aged between 2 years 6 months and 5 years 7 months at the time of surgery (mean age 3y 7mo). Participants were all children, without psychological disorders, who were candidates for receiving a cochlear implant. They were consecutively included from March 2000 to November 2002. All these children received the same cochlear implant (MED-EL Temp+). This study was accepted by the local ethics committee. Three assessments were made: pre-implant evaluation (n=20), 1 year after activation of the implant (the implant was activated 1mo after surgery; n=20), and 2 years after activation (n=18). In order to examine the impact of an implant on communication skills and acquisition of social rules, we used Doll’s Vineland Social Maturity Scale which has norms for populations with normal hearing and permits the evaluation of three domains of social development (Communication, Socialization, and Autonomy). We used the norms tables to convert gross scores into standardized scores and were able to monitor the participants’ scores in each of the above mentioned fields over a 2-year period. To evaluate the children’s cognitive development, we used the Snijders-Oomen non-verbal intelligence scale for young children for two main reasons. First, the instructions relating to the tasks and the responses are not language-mediated, neither orally nor signed. Second, it provides standardized norms for the deaf population. We calculated an intelligence quotient on the basis of the standard scores. These quotients made it possible to monitor the changes in the participant’s scores at the level of intellectual skills over a 2-year period. Non-parametric tests (Friedman, Wilcoxon) were used for the analyses because the data were not normally distributed. Analyses revealed a significant effect of the post-implantation experience on communication skills (Friedman, n=18, v=13.72, p=0.001; Fig. 1a). More specifically, communication abilities and lexical register increased significantly between the pre-implant interval and the first year after surgery (Wilcoxon, n=20, z=)2.80, p=0.005). Children scoring around 100 signifies that the developmental age corresponds to the chronological age. Although the scores increased again between year 1 and year 2, the difference was not significant. The Socialization scale relates more specifically to the mastery of social conventions and the cultural codes which, to some extent at least, underpin social integration. The analyses revealed a significant effect of the postimplantation experience on the evolution of scores observed on this scale (Friedman, n=18, v=7.51, p=0.023). More specifically, while the results obtained increased significantly during the first year after implantation (Wilcoxon, n=20, z=)3.29, p=0.001), they then subsequently stabilized. The Social Autonomy scale measures children’s ability to look after themselves during their everyday activities. It thus involves aspects such as getting dressed, washing, eating, participating in household chores, and going out. The results obtained indicated that the scores on this scale remained constant over the 2 years of observation. The analyses revealed significant progress in the children’s intellectual skills after receiving an implant (Fig. 1b). There was a significant effect of the post-implantation experience on the evolution of scores obtained in this intellectual skills task (Friedman, n=18, v=10.46, p=0.005). More specifically, the mean intelligence quotient scores increased significantly from the pre-implant interval to the first year following implantation (Wilcoxon, n=20, z=)3,24, p=0.001). Children scoring around 100 signifies that the developmental age corresponds to the chronological age. The increase in the scores between 1 and 2 years following implantation was not significant. The group of implanted children tended not only to exhibit a greater disposition to communicate but also pos-

Dialects in Animals: Evidence, Development and Potential Functions

Dialects are one of the parallels that have long been established between human language and animal communication. Here we will describe the different forms of “dialects” discovered in animals and discuss some potential functional parallels between human and animal dialects, arguing that in both cases different mechanisms and functions may be at stake where large geographical versus very localized (e.g. social) variations are concerned. Birdsong studies in particular, but also recent studies of mammal vocalizations, show that the use of the term “dialect” to refer to within-species vocal variations in animal species is more than a metaphor and that animal dialects offer a possibility to explore the causes and functions of linguistic variation and change. We present here an original view, as our approach is not “primate-centered”, and takes into consideration “homoplasy” (analogy) as a potential mechanism to explain that different taxa have evolved the same functional response to social constraints. We will develop an integrative view of animal dialects through birdsong studies where ontogeny, causality (brain processes), functions and evolution are considered in a common framework.

Sociolinguistic convergence and social interactions within a group of preschoolers: A longitudinal study

Sociolinguistic studies have shown that linguistic usage is closely related to social relationships and interactions between individuals. This has been established in adults and adolescents but developmental studies involving children are lacking. This paper studies whether and how peers influence the acquisition of social dialects in young children by using direct observations and quantitative analyses of spontaneous peer interactions and relationships at kindergarten. The longitudinal follow-up of one group of French-speaking children 4 to 5 years of age shows that the individual scores of sociolinguistic variables converge after one year of frequent contact. Moreover, we find that children who interact more frequently adopt similar usage of sociolinguistic variables, whereas other factors have no influence (teacher’s speech, child’s awareness of standard sociolinguistics norms, reported interpersonal attraction). These results provide the first evidence that social interactions within the peer group do have an influence on children’s linguistic usage through daily interactions at an early age.

Sex Differences in Language Across Early Childhood: Family Socioeconomic Status does not Impact Boys and Girls Equally

Child sex and family socioeconomic status (SES) have been repeatedly identified as a source of inter-individual variation in language development; yet their interactions have rarely been explored. While sex differences are the focus of a renewed interest concerning emerging language skills, data remain scarce and are not consistent across preschool years. The questions of whether family SES impacts boys and girls equally, as well as of the consistency of these differences throughout early childhood, remain open. We evaluated consistency of sex differences across SES and age by focusing on how children (N = 262), from 2;6 to 6;4 years old, from two contrasting social backgrounds, acquire a frequent phonological alternation in French – the liaison. By using a picture naming task eliciting the production of obligatory liaisons, we found evidence of sex differences over the preschool years in low-SES children, but not between high-SES boys and girls whose performances were very similar. Low-SES boys’ performances were the poorest whereas low-SES girls’ performances were intermediate, that is, lower than those of high-SES children of both sexes but higher than those of low-SES boys. Although all children’s mastery of obligatory liaisons progressed with age, our findings showed a significant impeding effect of low-SES, especially for boys.

Assessment and analysis of human laterality for manipulation and communication using the Rennes Laterality Questionnaire

Despite significant scientific advances, the nature of the left-hemispheric systems involved in language (speech and gesture) and manual actions is still unclear. To date, investigations of human laterality focused mainly on non-communication functions. Although gestural laterality data have been published for infants and children, relatively little is known about laterality of human gestural communication. This study investigated human laterality in depth considering non-communication manipulation actions and various gesture types involving hands, feet, face and ears. We constructed an online laterality questionnaire including 60 items related to daily activities. We collected 317 594 item responses by 5904 randomly selected participants. The highest percentages of strong left-lateralized (6.76%) and strong right-lateralized participants (75.19%) were for manipulation actions. The highest percentages of mixed left-lateralized (12.30%) and ambidextrous (50.23%) participants were found for head-related gestures. The highest percentage of mixed right-lateralized participants (55.33%) was found for auditory gestures. Every behavioural category showed a significant population-level right-side bias. More precisely, participants were predominantly right-lateralized for non-communication manual actions, for visual iconic, visual symbolic, visual deictic (with and without speech), tactile and auditory manual gestures as well as for podial and head-related gestures. Our findings support previous studies reporting that humans have left-brain predominance for gestures and complex motor activities such as tool-use. Our study shows that the Rennes Laterality Questionnaire is a useful research instrument to assess and analyse human laterality for both manipulation and communication functions.