Stephanie Rudwick

Is marriage a dying institution in South Africa? Exploring changes in marriage in the context of ilobolo payments

abstract This article describes racial differences in marriage rates in post-apartheid South Africa and considers one possible reason for these differences related to the traditional practice of ilobolo among African families. We use nationally representative micro data to document very low and declining marriage rates among young Africans, large differences in marriage rates between Africans and whites, as well as rising rates of cohabitation, particularly among young African women and men. We then review the payment of bride wealth in this context, drawing on the historical literature as well as on popular media resources and quantitative data collected in the South African Social Attitudes Survey of 2005, to explore attitudes towards ilobolo as practised in contemporary African society.

Contemporary functions of ilobolo (bridewealth) in urban South African Zulu society

The functions and meanings of bridewealth in African societies have been analysed extensively in anthropological and historical studies. Although bridewealth remains widely practised in Southern Africa, few studies have examined the custom in a contemporary context. This paper addresses the paucity of research by focusing on South African Zulu society where, among all cultural traditions, the payment of bridewealth (ilobolo) continues to be one of the most salient. On the basis of recent qualitative research data collected in the province of KwaZulu-Natal, we argue that ilobolo practices among urban Zulu people are multifaceted and its contemporary functions debated and contested. However, there is also broad consensus about the obligation to uphold the custom based on a complex web of cultural and spiritual motives, socio-economic considerations and collectivist identity politics.

Ukukipita (Cohabiting): Socio-Cultural Constraints in Urban Zulu Society

In South Africa non-marital cohabitation rates among Africans remain low, and particularly in the context of very low marriage rates. Through qualitative interviews with urban isiZulu-speakers we explore attitudes towards ukukipita (cohabiting) in contemporary Zulu society. These in-depth interviews capture the meanings associated with non-marital cohabitation and they provide insights into why cohabitation is widely viewed as unacceptable in Zulu society unless the man has initiated ilobolo (bridewealth) negotiations and concrete marriage plans are in place. Cohabitation without ilobolo payment is widely interpreted as akin to behaving disrespectfully towards Zulu culture and tradition, the immediate family and the Zulu community more broadly.

Divided loyalties: Zulu vis-à-vis English at the University of KwaZulu-Natal

Abstract The University of KwaZulu-Natal (UKZN) is located in a province in South Africa where almost 80 per cent of the population speaks Zulu as first language (L1). It is one of the few tertiary institutions in the country where tangible steps have been taken toward incorporating an African language for academic purposes. In this article, the authors examine the attitudes towards Zulu vis-à-vis English among first-year UKZN students through a qualitative approach of two research periods. While the first set of interview data captures students’ attitudes towards Zulu and English at UKZN more generally, the second set of interview data includes perceptions towards UKZNs language policy. This policy will introduce Zulu as a compulsory subject for all undergraduate students starting from 2014, and aims to develop this language as the language of learning and teaching (LoLT). Despite widespread support among Zulu-speaking students for the new UKZN language policy per se, many of them report not wanting to study in their mother tongue. The article sheds some light on the reasons that lie behind this apparent contradiction.

Hlonipha and the rural Zulu woman

abstract Against the background of South Africas Constitution which sensibly provides for the linguistic, cultural, religious and gender rights of every citizen, this Briefing examines the custom of Hlonipha in contemporary rural Zulu society and its ramifications for Zulu women. Despite the Constitutions copious commitment to gender-equality, much of South Africas rural society remains largely patriarchal. Sadly, many South Africans are not quite ready for the progressive state of their Constitution. And the Constitution itself is not flawless either as several principles spelt out in different clauses are in profound conflict with each other. Closely examined, it exhibits discrepancies between the areas of womens rights and cultural rights. The urban-rural dichotomy creates potential for conflict as regards gender issues, within the same ethno-linguistic groups, in this case isiZulu-speakers in KwaZulu-Natal. We explore whether and how traditionalist interpretations of the customary behaviour of respect {ukuhlonipha translated to respect) and the linguistic politeness register associated with it (isiHlonipho. translated language of respect) may disadvantage women in their everyday lives. On the basis of recent empirical data collected in the northern area of rural KwaZulu-Natal it is argued that many rural Zulu people maintain a patriarchal and primordially perceived cultural system which in the context of hlonipha involves the disempowerment of women. It is argued that the traditionalist interpretations and executions of the custom of hlonipha present a challenge to the constitutional gender-equality rights of women in the post-apartheid state and as such could be seen to be in contradiction with the Bill of Rights.

Zulu bridewealth (ilobolo) and womanhood in South Africa

In South African society, the custom of bridewealth [in Zulu: ilobolo] is widely upheld, although its current practice may constrain marriage in African society. The custom is persistent particularly in South African Zulu society and has been understood as symbolising a man’s masculinity and role as economic provider. In this article, we focus on how a sample of Zulu women views bridewealth, and on the role that women play in the practice and maintenance of the custom. Drawing from extensive qualitative data recently collected in KwaZulu-Natal, we illustrate how the women in our study construct multifaceted femininities through ilobolo. The custom sustains a widely desired and respected notion of womanhood based on “traditional” conceptions of Zulu female propriety, dignity and cultural pride. Socio-economic considerations and complex gendered power dynamics also explain why women actively contribute to upholding the custom.

Intersections of two isiZulu genderlects and the construction of 'skesana' identities

Drawing on Youdell’s (2000, 2005, 2006) work on identity formation, we examine in this article multiple performances of gender identities in relation to a particular language use among African men who engage in same-sex relations. Based on semi-ethnographic research and in-depth interviews with African men who are isiNgqumo speakers in the Durban metropolitan area in KwaZulu-Natal, this article portrays the intersectional nature of two genderlects. The isiNgqumo lexicon is characterised largely by what Zulu speakers refer to as “deep” lexicon, and a closer examination reveals that a substantial number of lexical items are drawn from the isiHlonipho variety of Zulu, also termed “isiHlonipho Sabafazi” (‘women’s language of respect’). Hlonipha (lit. ‘respect’) social actions and language use are representative of showing submissiveness towards males and other people who are considered superiors. On the basis of the experiences of men who engage in same-sex relations and who self-identify as skesana , we argue that an isiNgqumo variety that draws from the isiHlonipho lexicon represents a linguistic variety that is linked to a heteronormative and patriarchal cultural system which renders femininity an inferior subject position. Within this gendered order, certain linguistic expressions of isiNgqumo can create tension-riddled identity categories and allow for complex positioning for skesanas , many of whom draw on heteronormative and heteropoleric categories in the construction of their sexual and gender identities.

'Gay and Zulu, we speak isiNgqumo': Ethnolinguistic identity constructions

South Africa was one of the first countries in the world to include a sexual orientation clause in its Bill of Rights and in 2006 became the first African country to legalise same-sex marriage. Research studies on gay and lesbian speech varieties, however, have thus far been limited to Cages (2003) pioneering publication of Gayle which is South Africas English/Afrikaans gay variety and a recent paper on isiNgqumo, its African language equivalent (Rudwick and Ntuli 2008). South Africas history of segregation and its prevailing multilingualism and multiculturalism, offers particularly intricate social, cultural and linguistic dynamics among sub-cultures in the society, such as the LGBT (Lesbian, Gay, Bi-sexual and Transgender) community. Against the background of South Africas apartheid policy and the history of black homosexuality, this paper explores ethnolinguistic identity constructions involved in the usage of isiNgqumo, a gay linguistic variety spoken by black, predominantly Zulu men. It draws from qualitative interview data with Zulu gay men in the province of KwaZulu-Natal and portrays individual and collective subjectivities. While it is true that the popular view of Zulu ethnicity as a fixed and static group identity is still widely prevalent (Wright 2008: 35), this paper demonstrates some of the multifaceted, flexible, and dynamic nature of current Zuluness in relation to a particular linguistic variety of isiZulu.

Language, Africanisation, and Identity Politics at a South African University

ABSTRACT After centuries of “Eurocentric” linguistic ideology, the South African government has formulated African language development and multilingualism as one priority in the education system. While only English, and decreasingly Afrikaans, are the only “established” languages of instruction at tertiary level, most universities in the country have revised their language policies in order to show commitment to South Africa’s evident multilingualism. This article provides a critical analysis of particular language and identity politics in one of the leading tertiary institutions of the country. The theoretical framework is based on a critical sociolinguistic approach that draws attention to polarizing identity politics in relation to language policy, planning and implementation. Methodologically grounded in ethnography, the article has a two-fold perspective. First, it analyses particular language policy rhetoric at the University on focus and argues that its essentialist approach to Africanisation triggers contested identity politics. Second, the article provides insights into the developments of specific implementations, pointing to ideological as well as practical challenges at the university on focus.