Stephanie Stolarz-Fantino

The conjunction fallacy: A test of averaging hypotheses

The conjunction fallacy, in which individuals report that the conjunction of two events is more rather than less likely to occur than one of the events alone, is a robust phenomenon. We assessed the possibility that an analysis in terms of functional measurement methodology might be consistent with occurrence of the fallacy. A 3 × 3 design in which we varied the judged likelihood of the two components constituting the conjunction permitted us to assess the possibility that subjects judge the likelihood of conjunctions by averaging the likelihood of their component parts. The results were consistent with this possibility, and this interpretation was supported by analysis of the results in terms of functional measurement methodology.

Increased False-Memory Susceptibility After Mindfulness Meditation

The effect of mindfulness meditation on false-memory susceptibility was examined in three experiments. Because mindfulness meditation encourages judgment-free thoughts and feelings, we predicted that participants in the mindfulness condition would be especially likely to form false memories. In two experiments, participants were randomly assigned to either a mindfulness induction, in which they were instructed to focus attention on their breathing, or a mind-wandering induction, in which they were instructed to think about whatever came to mind. The overall number of words from the Deese-Roediger-McDermott paradigm that were correctly recalled did not differ between conditions. However, participants in the mindfulness condition were significantly more likely to report critical nonstudied items than participants in the control condition. In a third experiment, which tested recognition and used a reality-monitoring paradigm, participants had reduced reality-monitoring accuracy after completing the mindfulness induction. These results demonstrate a potential unintended consequence of mindfulness meditation in which memories become less reliable.

Regulating the Way to Obesity: Unintended Consequences of Limiting Sugary Drink Sizes

Objectives We examined whether a sugary drink limit would still be effective if larger-sized drinks were converted into bundles of smaller-sized drinks. Methods In a behavioral simulation, participants were offered varying food and drink menus. One menu offered 16 oz, 24 oz, or 32 oz drinks for sale. A second menu offered 16 oz drinks, a bundle of two 12 oz drinks, or a bundle of two 16 oz drinks. A third menu offered only 16 oz drinks for sale. The method involved repeated elicitation of choices, and the instructions did not mention a limit on drink size. Results Participants bought significantly more ounces of soda with bundles than with varying-sized drinks. Total business revenue was also higher when bundles rather than only small-sized drinks were sold. Conclusions Our research suggests that businesses have a strong incentive to offer bundles of soda when drink size is limited. Restricting larger-sized drinks may have the unintended consequence of increasing soda consumption rather than decreasing it.

Decision-making: Context matters

Research and theory in human decision-making has increasingly stressed the importance of the context in which the problem is embedded. This emphasis is consistent with that supported by research of behavior analysts on natural concept formation and in problem solving, as well as in the study of choice. We present data on reasoning problems that further support the role of context in decision-making.

Rules and problem solving: another look.

College students were trained on problems similar to the water jar problems developed by Luchins (1942). Some students were instructed that a particular rule would solve all the problems, others had the same problems but were not instructed about the rule, and a third set of students had a series of novel problems in which no single rule operated throughout. In two experiments students in the instructed rule group not only performed best in training but also performed best when transferred to a condition in which a single novel rule was appropriate. Although results from the set of conditions most similar to those of Luchins suggested that students sometimes inappropriately persisted in rule usage, the overall results suggest that rigidity is not a necessary outcome of instructed problem solving. Indeed, many of the results were consistent with the notion that instructed problem solving is flexible problem solving.

Use of base rates and case cue information in making likelihood estimates.

In five experiments, we investigated college students’ use of base rate and case cue information in estimating likelihood. The participants reported that case cues were more important than base rates, except when the case cues were totally uninformative, and made more use of base rate information when the base rates were varied within subjects, rather than between subjects. Estimates were more Bayesian when base rate and case cue information was congruent, rather than contradictory. The nature of the “witness” in case cue information (animate or inanimate) did not affect the use of base rate and case cue information. Multiple trials with feedback led to more accurate estimates; however, this effect was not lasting. The results suggest that when base rate information is made salient by experience (multiple trials and within-subjects variation) or by other manipulations, base rate neglect is minimized.

Grandparental altruism: Expanding the sense of cause and effect.

Grandparental altruism may be partially understood in the same way as other instances of altruism. Acts of altruism often occur in a context in which the actor has a broader sense of cause and effect than is evident in more typical behavioral interactions where cause and effect appear relatively transparent. Many believe that good deeds will ultimately produce good results.

Bundling the Way to Bankruptcy: Economic Theory Should Inform the Design of Sugary-Drink Menus Used in Research:

In previous work (Wilson, Stolarz-Fantino, & Fantino, 2013), we examined whether a legal regulation limiting the sizes of sugary drinks would be effective if largersized drinks were converted into bundles of smallersized drinks. Our study was conducted in anticipation of a sugary-drink limit being enacted in New York City. Our primary point was that new regulations may be ineffective if policymakers do not consider that businesses will always choose to offer only the most profitable menus, within the limits of those regulations. For many public-health regulations to be effective, policymakers must consider both consumption and business profit. It is therefore important for researchers to consider profit maximization in menu design, or studies are likely to suggest ill-informed implementations. In a recent study, John, Donnelly, and Roberto (2017) attempted to shed light on the policy implications of a sugary-drink portion limit. Their menu design, however, ignored economic theory and standard business practices that make menus profit maximizing. The menus used in these experiments were confusing and unappealing, and they did not represent menus businesses would actually offer in response to new regulation. In order for their research to have policy implications, John et al. would need to demonstrate that their menus are profit maximizing. Moreover, even if businesses were required to offer one of their menus, the experimental data did not show that this would effectively reduce caloric consumption.1 Rather than offering the unappealing menus used by John et al., businesses would almost certainly offer more attractive menus. Therefore, the absence of any significant change in consumption (i.e., a failure to achieve the policy goal, but with no harmful consequences) might have been a best-case scenario for the New York City regulation limiting the portion size for sugary drinks. Profit-Maximizing Menus

Fish displaying and infants sucking: The operant side of the social behavior Coin

We applaud Domjan et al. for providing an elegant account of Pavlovian feed-forward mechanisms in social behavior that eschews the pitfall of purposivism. However, they seem to imply that they have provided a complete account without provision for operant conditioning. We argue that operant conditioning plays a central role in social behavior, giving examples from fish and infant behavior.