Stephen A. Butterfield

Influence of Age, Sex, Balance, and Sport Participation on Development of Throwing by Children in Grades K-8

The purpose of this study was to examine the contributions of age, sex, balance, and sport participation on development of throwing by children in Grades K-8. The subjects were 381 boys and 338 girls (ages 4–14) enrolled in a medium-sized school system in southeastern Maine. Each subject was individually assessed in throwing development and static and dynamic balance. In addition, all subjects completed a survey relative to their participation in school- or community-sponsored sports. To determine the independent effects of age, sex, static balance, dynamic balance, and sport participation within each grade, data were subjected to multiple regression analysis, which indicated that mature throwing development was influenced by sport participation and sex. Boys performed better at all grades.

Age and sex differences in object control skills by children ages 5 to 14

Object control skills provide children the tools to be physically active—a major societal priority. At the fundamental movement level, object control skills form the foundation of further sports skill development. The purpose of this study was to examine childrens (ages 5 to 14 years, Grades K—8) development of four key object control skills: catching, throwing, kicking, and striking. 186 children were tested on selected items from the Object Control Subtest of the Test of Gross Motor Development-2, using a cross-sectional and correlational design. As anticipated, significant differences were found for age on all four skills. These improvements were characterized by early, rapid gains at ages 9 to 10, beyond which development occurred at a slower rate for catching, throwing, and kicking; striking development continued at a steady rate to age 14 years. Contrary to previous findings, no overall sex differences were found for catching or kicking. Overall sex differences favoring boys were observed for throwing and striking. Implications for evolutionary contributions to throwing and striking were discussed.

Age, Sex, and Body Mass Index in Performance of Selected Locomotor and Fitness Tasks by Children in Grades K-2

The purpose of this study was to examine the contributions of 3 predictor variables (age, sex, and body mass index) to performance of 7 fundamental movement skills (locomotor; run, gallop, hop, leap, jump, skip, and slide) and 4 fitness tasks (grip strength, step test, sit and reach, and timed sit-ups) by 65 children in Grades K-2 (M =6 yr.). A multiple regression analysis indicated that running, leaping, and skipping improved with age. No sex differences were observed on any of the seven skills. In terms of the four fitness tasks, age was positively associated with timed sit-ups and grip strength and inversely associated with step-test performance. Sex was associated with step-test and sit and reach performance (girls performed better on both). Finally, body mass index was related to increased grip strength and fewer timed sit-ups.

Influence of Age, Sex, Hearing Loss, and Balance on Development of Running by Deaf Children

130 deaf boys and girls, ages 3 to 14 years, were tested on development of mature running form. The mature form in this skill was associated with chronological age and performance of static and dynamic balance. Sex and hearing loss do not appear to affect development of running.

Growth rates in running speed and vertical jumping by boys and girls ages 11-13.

This study examined growth rates in running speed and vertical jump among middle school children. 45 boys and 31 girls ages 11–13 years were tested on running speed and vertical jump three times (September, February, and May) during the school year. Hierarchical linear modeling was used to estimate initial status and growth rates for the entire sample (base model) and the association of running and vertical jump with height, weight, and sex (conditional model). Positive overall growth rates were found for both running speed and vertical jump. Increased height and weight at the time of measurement were not significantly associated with growth rate for running. The growth rate for vertical jump was positively associated with height but unrelated to increased weight. Boys showed steeper growth rates than girls in jumping. No sex differences were found in running speed for either initial status or growth rate. Furthermore, these results suggest highly variable rates of physical maturation but no general period of ‘adolescent awkwardness’.

Grip-Strength Performances by 6- to 19-Yr.-Old Children with and without Hearing Impairments:

86 children and youth enrolled at a residential school for the deaf were matched with 86 children and youth with normal hearing (by age, sex, height, weight, and hand preference) from four public schools. Each participants grip strength was tested with a calibrated hydraulic dynamometer set at the second position. No significant between-group differences were observed. The authors attributed the similar between-group performances to the equal opportunities for participation in sport and physical education in this residential school.

DEVELOPMENT OF CATCHING BY CHILDREN IN KINDERGARTEN TO GRADE 8: A MULTICOHORT LONGITUDINAL STUDY

The purpose of this study was to examine developmental change associated with catching by children in Grades Kindergarten through 8. Childrens performance was tested on the Catching Subtest of the Ohio State University Scale of Intra Gross Motor Assessment (OSU-SIGMA). More precisely, four cohorts of boys and girls in Grades K-8 (N = 340) from 1992 to 2000: in 1992 Grades K-8, in 1994 Grades 2–8, in 1996 Grades 4–8, and in 1998 Grades 6–8. In 2000, the original Kindergarten cohort was tested again. Data, analyzed by hierarchical nonlinear modeling, yielded significant differences in mean initial status (intercept) of all three cohorts, in mean growth rate (slope) for the K-8 cohort only, in initial status of the K-8 cohort, and for participants in baseball and softball.

INFLUENCE OF AGE, SEX, AND BALANCE ON MATURE SKIPPING BY CHILDREN IN GRADES K-8

This study examined the contributions of age, sex, and balance on maturity of skipping by children in Grades K–8. The subjects were 379 boys and 337 girls (ages 4–14 years) enrolled in a medium-size school system in southeastern Maine. Each subject was individually assessed on skipping as well as static and dynamic balance. To assess the independent statistical contributions of age, sex, static balance, and dynamic balance within each grade, data were subjected to multiple regression analysis. Development of mature form in skipping was related to balance in two isolated but unaccountable instances.

HEALTH-RELATED PHYSICAL FITNESS LEVELS OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL CHILDREN AGES 5-9

National health goals include an increase in the physical activity and physical fitness of school-age children by the year 2000. To assess current fitness levels in the state of Maine, more than 8,000 public school students, ages five through nine, were assessed using a nationally known (American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance) health-related physical fitness test. Maine students were then compared with a national norm group on (1) the one-mile walk/run (minutes:seconds), (2) skinfold thickness (centimeters), (3) one-minute timed sit-ups (number performed correctly), and (4) the sit and reach test for flexibility (centimeters). Generally, Maine boys and girls scored higher than the norms on the sit-up, sit and reach, and one-mile walk/run; however, they had significantly larger skinfold thicknesses. Implications for assessment of health-related fitness in this age group were discussed.

INFLUENCE OF AGE, SEX, HEARING LOSS, AND BALANCE ON KICKING DEVELOPMENT BY DEAF CHILDREN

The ability to kick a stationary or moving ball successfully is requisite to several games and sports. A previous study (2) suggested that many deaf children may be delayed in their development of this important skill. The present smdy was designed to investigate the influence of age, sex, hearing loss, and balance on the development of mature kicking form among deaf children. Seventy-five boys and 57 girls bemeen the ages of 3 and 14 yr. participated in the study. Within this group, 125 (95%) had a hearing loss of at least 60 dB in the better ear. The remaining 7 children had hearing losses ranging from 30 dB to 55 dB. To determine level of kicking development, subjects were individually assessed on the Ohio State University Scale of Intra Gross Motor Assessment (OSU-SIGMA) (4). Sratic and dynamic balance were measured by Items 2 and 7 of Subtest 2 of the Short Form of the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency (1). The basic design for this study was a cross-sectional correlation design whereby a set of predictor variables (age, sex, hearing loss, static balance, and dynamic balance) were correlated with kicking level (Lv 1, 2, 3, 4 of the OSU-SIGMA) the criterion variable. Data from the kicking and balance tests were subjected to linear discriminant analysis (3). From this analysis, structure coefficients were interpreted for the significant discriminant functions. A structural coefficient is an estimate of relationship between a variable and a function. Only structure coefficients with a value greater than .30 were used in the interpretation. The result for kicking was significant for the first function (Wilkss Lambda = .GI, p < .001). Suucrure coefficients for age (.82), hearing loss (.32), static balance (.45), and dynamic balance (.43) gave meaning to the function. These results imply that balance proficiency is predictive of mature form in kicking among deaf children. Children with the greatest hearing loss were also more likely to achieve mature kicking form; however, there is no present explanation to account for this finding. Sex (-.22) did not appear to influence development of kicking among the deaf children of this study.