Stephen C. Larsen

A New Definition of Learning Disabilities

Learning disabilities is a generic term that refers to a heterogeneous group of disorders manifested by significant difficulties in the acquisition and use of listening, speaking, reading, writing, reasoning or mathematical abilities. These disorders are intrinsic to the individual and presumed to be due to central nervous system dysfunction. Even though a learning disability may occur concomitantly with other handicapping conditions (e.g., sensory impairment, mental retardation, social and emotional disturbance) or environmental influences (e.g., cultural differences, insufficient/inappropriate instruction, psychogenic factors), it is not the direct result of those conditions or influences.

The Effectiveness of Psycholinguistic Training

This article reviews the results of 38 studies which attempted to train children in psycholinguistic skills and which used the ITPA as the criterion of improvement. It was concluded that the effectiveness of such training has not been conclusively demonstrated and therefore that the rapid expansion of psycholinguistic training programs seems unwarranted.

The Relationship of Selected Visual- Perceptual Abilities to School Learning

DONALD D. HAMMILL, Ed.D. Austin, Texas The relationship between certain visualperceptual abilities and school learning has long been a source of interest to educators, many of whom have speculated that deficits in visual perception may cause or, at least, contribute to academic failure. Historically, this assumption has been based upon the clinical experience of various members of the educational community as well as upon some basic research (Barrett, 1965; Bryan, 1964; Frostig & Maslow, 1969; Goins, 1958; Kephart, 1971; Pitcher-Baker, 1973; Rosen, 1966; Wepman, 1964). While visual perception and, in particular, its relationship to school learning have received much attention in professional journals, the educational usefulness of this important theoretical construct has never been fully substantiated. In fact, recent opinion and research have seriously questioned its relevance as a practical correlate of learning failure (Cohen, 1969; Hammill, 1972; Mann, 1970). It is important to note, however, that many school systems throughout the country are still committing large numbers of man hours

A Comparison of Components of Written Expression Abilities in Learning Disabled and Non-Learning Disabled Students at Three Grade Levels.

Although written language plays a critical role in academic success, little empirical evidence exists on the normal development of processes involved in producing written products. Even less is known about the writing performance of LD children. This study empirically compared the written products of LD and normal students at three grade levels on The Test of Written Language. Results showed that LD subjects scored significantly lower than normal subjects on most written expression abilities, especially in the mechanical tasks of spelling, punctuation, and word usage.

The Relationship of Selected Auditory Perceptual Skills and Reading Ability

A review of studies using correlational statistical procedures to examine the relationship of reading to measures of auditory discrimination, memory, blending, and auditory-visual integration is presented. The consensus of this research suggests that the auditory skills are not sufficiently related to reading to be particularly useful for school practice. The conclusions provide information regarding the desirability of training these skills with the aim of increasing reading ability. The direction future research must take to further explore the relation of other auditory variables to reading is indicated.

The Effectiveness of Psycholinguistic Training: A Reaffirmation of Position:

The effectiveness of psycholinguistic training is a topic that has generated much interest and research. In 1974 Hammill and Larsen published an article that reviewed 38 studies that had attempted to foster psycholinguistic skills in children while using the Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic Abilities as the criterion for improvement. The conclusion of this review was that psycholinguistic training is essentially nonvalidated. In an article published in the February 1978 issue of Exceptional Children, Lund, Foster, and McCall-Perez reanalyzed many of the studies reported by Hammill and Larsen and indicated that some had been inaccurately reported, inappropriately categorized, and/or misinterpreted. The purpose of the present article is to demonstrate that, in fact, the studies discussed in Hammill and Larsons 1974 paper were accurately reported and that the current status of psycholinguistic training is that it remains nonvalidated. Readers are encouraged to formulate their own perceptions regarding this controversial area.

The Use of Selected Perceptual Tests in Differentiating between Normal and Learning Disabled Children

The purpose of this study was to investigate the diagnostic usefulness of some commonly used tests of “perceptual functioning.” Thirty normal and 59 learning disabled children were administered the Auditory and Visual Sequential Memory and Sound Blending subtests of the Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic Abilities, the Wepman Auditory Discrimination Test and the Bender Visual-Motor Gestalt Test. Statistical analyses were computed to determine if there were differences in performance on the tests between the normal and learning disabled children. It was found that only the Bender Visual-Motor Gestalt Test differentiated the two groups. The authors caution that continued use of these tests for purposes of diagnosis and placement should be carefully considered until additional research becomes available.

The Effects of Syntactic Complexity upon Arithmetic Performance.

The results of this study suggest that the syntactic complexity of written mathematical problems influences the students ability to solve the problems. Although the study used low-achieving eighth-grade students and a relatively small n, the implications for assessment and instructional planning for LD students are nevertheless apparent. The study stresses the importance of considering factors other than just a youngsters mathematical ability to explain below-average performance in arithmetic.

The Learning Disabilities Specialist Role and Responsibilities

During the past 12 years the field of learning disabilities has undergone a very rapid, uneven, and frequently confusing period of growth. The evidence of this growth i s readily apparent: The vast majority of school systems across the country have instituted service delivery systems to assist the learning disabled. University teacher training programs are annually producing hundreds of specialists who are presumably proficient in teaching the child and/or adolescent who exhibits school related problems. And 47 states now mention the category of learning disabilities in their administrative guidelines. In addition, two nationally focused organizations (i.e., the Association for Children with Learning Disabilities and the Division for Children with Learning Disabilities, a component of the Council for Exceptional Children) have generated public interest in children experiencing learning problems, initiated school programs for them, and obtained funds to support special projects, teacher training programs, and some research. Even the casual observer can see that learning disabilities now represcnts one of the largest, and perhaps most controversial, categories in special education. Typical of new educational endeavors which have not yet solidified their philosophical positions or optimum school practices, the learning disabilities movement has experienced a great deal of ambiguity and uncertainty. Major areas of contention among educators and parents are which definition, assessment and remedial procedures, and service delivery systems are thought to be most appropriate for the learning disabled. In addition to these concerns, disputes have also arisen as to what professional groups are best qualified to instruct the learning disabled child i.e., the “territorial rights” of the learning disability specialist, speech pathologist, reading teacher, etc. The last p6int i s particularly important since funds for most phases of education are being substantially reduced and it i s likely that increased competition for pupils will develop among professional groups to ensure that their members will continue to be employed. To resolve this potential source of conflict as well as to provide the learning disabled child with the most efficient educational opportunities possible, clear and open lines of communication between professionals must be established and maintained. The purpose of this paper i s to discuss the responsibilities of the learning disability specialists who are operating in the public schools. In particular, attention will be given to the characteristics of those children who are currently receiving services, the traditional settings in which instruction typically takes place, and commonly used educational approaches which facil i tate adequate academic achievement and social adjustment. A comparison between the field activities associated with the learning disability specialist, reading teacher, and speech pathologist should show areas of common interest and overlap as well as provide a point of departure for further dialogue.

The Effects of Spelling Instruction: A Preliminary Study.

Gaye McNutt The University of Oklahoma Norman, Oklahoma In schools, formal spelling instruction usually begins at the end of Grade 1 or at the beginning of Grade 2. Regardless of when the teaching of spelling is initiated, the teacher will probably use one of the many basal spelling series that are commercially available. Less frequently, the pupil may simply be taught to spell words from lists that are supposedly geared to grade levels. Or spelling intruction may be individualized completely and integrated into an experience story reading program. Occasionally, spelling instruction is not attempted at all. The purpose of this investigation is to study several commonly used approaches to the teaching of spelling in order to determine what programs, if any, are effective in aiding children to become proficient spellers. The first phase of this study involved locating one hundred teachers in Grades 3 through 8 who agreed to take part in the investigation. These teachers were asked to administer the Test of Written Spelling (1) to their pupils and to specify the particular method they used to teach spelling. The results would give the researchers information on the spelling achievement of each child in the sample and on the method of instruction being used to teach spelling in a particular classroom. Pupils in Grades 1 and 2 were not included in the sample because the tests were administered at the beginning of the school year, and it was believed that firstand second-