Stephen D. Webb

Police stress: A conceptual overview

Abstract Over the past decade, a sizeable body of literature has developed that examines police stress from a variety of perspectives. The vast majority of the literature is anecdotal in nature and that which is based on research is often inconsistent. As used in the literature, the term stress has widely differing meanings and its measurement has ranged from the artful to the sublime. But of greater importance than the measurement issue is the necessary complexity of any model that attempts to deal with the interrelationships thought to exist between stress and other factors. The variety and complexity of individual differences and the interplay between environmental conditions and the persons unique perception of both objective and subjective situations obscures any simple relationships. The purpose of this note is to examine the nature of stress, its sources and consequences among police, and to identify gaps in the conceptual model within which police stress is normally viewed.

Urban ecological and household correlates of stress-alleviative drug use.

Experiments in animal biology are the major source of data relating the spatial distribution of populations to stress and its ultimate pathological consequences. The findings of these experiments are clear, dramatic, and relatively consistent: they suggest that population spatial characteristics such as high density, overcrowding and congestion lead to a variety of pathological conditions including aggression, decreased reproductive behavior, and heightened rates of morbidity and mortality (Calhoun, 1962; Theissen, 1964; Christian and Davis, 1964; and Freedman, 1973).

Rural-Urban Differences in the Use of Stress-Alleviative Drugs

The concern of this study is the differntial prevalence of stress in rural and urban areas. Although it has long been alleged that urban life is more stressful than that experienced in rural districts, the available evidence is far from consistent. This study, employing stress-alleviative drug use as an operational index of stress, examines rates of prescriptions for such drugs across the rural-urban continuum in New Zealand. The data, obtained from a nationwide surveys of pharmacists, are contrary to much of our convenitional wisdom regarding urban stress. Our findings indicate that in fact stress-related disorders are much more prevalent among rural than urban residents.

Urban Density, Household Crowding and Stress Reactions

A recurrent and central theme in discussions of the quality of life in urban areas is the supposed relationship between population density (people per acre), household crowding (people per room) and social problems. The usual assumption is that these forms of congestion are stressful to individuals and that the resultant stress is manifested in increased rates of physical, psychological and social disorders. Studies in animal biology are the major source of information linking crowding and density

Stress Prevention and Alleviation Strategies for the Police

While the available evidence suggests that at least some aspects of police work are stressful, our knowledge of the causes and consequences of that stress is based largely on conjecture. Stress research is exceedingly complex. After literally hundreds of studies on various facets of occupational stress, the results remain ambivalent and our knowledge meagre. Given that stress research is still in an exploratory stage, it is argued that the immediate attention of occupational stress studies among the police should focus on treatment and prevention strategies rather than on the sources or consequences of stress. Toward this end, this paper reviews a wide variety of programs aimed at preventing or alleviating police stress. The proposed strategies are classified here as either proactive or reactive. Proactive strategies are meant to prevent the development of stress through training and selection programs, better selection criteria, and a variety of administrative methods. The reactive strategies, such as counseling or rehabilitation programs, are aimed at alleviating the consequences of stress. Other direct relaxation techniques, e.g., biofeedback and meditation, are also reviewed along with the issue of disability compensation for stress related illnesses.

The Meaning, Measurement and Interchangeability of Density and Crowding Indices

A major theme with regard to environmental deterioration and the quality of life is the widespread assumption of causal relationships between urban crowding and congestion and many of the ubiquitous social and physical problems found in cities. Drug abuse, poverty, conflict, unemployment, crime, divorce, suicide, mental illness and a variety of physical disorders have all been linked to, and in some cases assumed to be inevitable consequences of, the high population density and household crowding found in the city. Although a spate of recent research has focused on the supposed noxious effects of spatial limitations (see Factor and Waldron, 1973; Hawley, 1972; Mitchell, 1971; and Tucker and Friedman, 1972) there appears to be considerable confusion and inconsistency in regard to the meaning and measurment of the terms density and crowding (Carey, 1972: Stokols, 1972a, 1972b; and Clarke, 1960). Animal biologists, whose findings have largely spurred the resurgence of interest in the relationship between the environment and behaviour, have seldom made any effort to distinguish between population density and crowding (see, Calhoun, 1962; Christian and Davis, 1964; and Hall, 1966). Social scientists, however, have been at some pains to make

Power plants in rural area communities: Their size, type and perceived impacts

Abstract The construction of large‐scale electric generating facilities has become the focus of considerable controversy in recent years. The controversy is, in part, a consequence of social changes such as disenchantment with the “growth ethic” and increased environmental concern. Opponents to the development of large‐scale electric generating facilities have generally argued that while power plants may temporarily enhance the local economy, their adverse effects far outweigh any potential social or economic benefits for the host community.

Further Issues in the Measurement of Density and Crowding

directly. I would suggest, then, that if possible, a direct measure of residential density should be taken. As my evidence indicates, size as a measure also has advantages in that it picks up the diffuse ’size effects’ associated with living in larger or smaller communities which have a direct effect not necessarily independent of ’density’. A third problem involves assumptions about the extent to which particular settlements are self-contained. Boroughs within metropolitan areas, and even satellite settlements, will have land uses which are quite different from those of a self-contained

Comparison of Occupational and Industrial Indices in Measuring the Division of Labor

As has been frequently pointed out (Gibbs and Martin, 1962: 699; Lampard, 1968: 100; Browning and Gibbs, 1971: 233), one of the most neglected areas of study in sociology and economics is the development of the division of labor. Although the process of functional differentiation is central to classical social theory (Smith, 1963: 4-10; Marx, 1964: 97; Durkheim, 1933; Spencer, 1921; Simmel, 1959: 53), as well as the more contemporary perspectives of human ecology (Hawley, 1950) and urban economics (Thompson, 1965), the division of labor has received little systematic attention since Durkheims well known discussion in 1893. As Lampard (1968: 100) has noted:

Police and stress: Research strategies for the future

This paper examines the research strategies of stress and police work using the example of role conflict. The major problems are identified as the lack of adequate measurement and conceptual clarity. Given this rudimentary state, a causal approach to the problem is not recommended at this time. The serious public consequences of physical, mental, and behavioral police reactions to stress will result in an increasing number of treatment and preventive programs. The existing programs lack careful evaluation components. Adequate evaluations should be a part of every treatment or preventive program. The most important research need is to conduct a thorough descriptive study of the actual rates of illness and stress related behaviors among the police. Once the extent and nature of the problem are identified, causal analysis can be undertaken.