Stephen G. Stradling

Errors and violations on the roads: a real distinction?

In considering the human contribution to accidents, it seems necessary to make a distinction between errors and violations; two forms of aberration which may have different psychological origins and demand different modes of remediation. The present study investigated whether this distinction was justified for self-reported driver behaviour. Five hundred and twenty drivers completed a driver behaviour questionnaire (DBQ) which asked them to judge the frequency with which they committed various types of errors and violations when driving. Three fairly robust factors were identified: violations, dangerous errors, and relatively harmless lapses, respectively. Violations declined with age, errors did not. Men of all ages reported more violations than women. Women, however, were significantly more prone to harmless lapses (or more honest) than men. These findings were consistent with the view that errors and violations are indeed mediated by different psychological mechanisms. Violations require explanation in terms of social and motivational factors, whereas errors (slips, lapses, and mistakes) may be accounted for by reference to the information-processing characteristics of the individual.

Driving errors, driving violations and accident involvement

A survey of over 1600 drivers is reported, the results of which are consistent with those reported in an earlier study (Reason et al. 1990), which identified a three-fold typology of aberrant driving behaviours. The first type, lapses, are absent-minded behaviours with consequences mainly for the perpetrator, posing no threat to other road users. The second type, errors, are typically misjudgements and failures of observation that may be hazardous to others. The third type, violations, involve deliberate contraventions of safe driving practice. In the present study the survey instrument used, the Driver Behaviour Questionnaire, was also shown to be reliable over time. Each type of behaviour was found to have different demographic correlates. Most importantly, accident liability was predicted by self-reported tendency to commit violations, but not by tendency to make errors or to have lapses. The implications for road safety are discussed.

Attitudinal predictors of interpersonally aggressive violations on the road

Abstract Aggressive driving behaviour was studied using a self-report questionnaire. Respondents were asked about their own behaviour on the road using a version of the Driver Behaviour Questionnaire which contained an extended set of driving violation items. Three violation factors were distinguished, providing support for the findings of Lawton, R., Parker, D., Manstead, A.S.R., and Stradling, S.G. (1997). The role of affect in predicting social behaviours: the case of road traffic violations. Journal of Applied Social Psychology , 27 , 1258–1276). Respondents’ beliefs and attitudes towards two aggressive driving scenarios were measured, using Ajzen’s (1988) theory of planned behaviour model (Ajzen, I. (1988). Attitudes, personality and behavior . Milton Keynes, UK: Open University Press) supplemented by a measure of affective beliefs. In one scenario the driver was described as initiating an aggressive driving episode, and in the other as retaliating to the aggressive driving of another. Beliefs and attitudes in relation to the scenarios were found to be significantly predictive of own self-reported aggressive driving behaviour. It was shown that aggressive driving behaviour was particularly associated with relatively positive (or less negative) beliefs and attitudes in relation to the initiation of an aggressive driving episode.

DIMENSIONS OF DRIVER ANGER, AGGRESSIVE AND HIGHWAY CODE VIOLATIONS AND THEIR MEDIATION BY SAFETY ORIENTATION IN UK DRIVERS

Abstract Aggressive behaviour on the roads is reported to be on the increase. This study administered Driving Anger Scale ( Deffenbacher et al. (1994) . Development of a driving anger scale. Psychological Reports, 74 , 83–91.), the Driver Behaviour Questionnaire, and the Driving Skill Inventory to a sample of 270 British drivers. Factor analysis of the Driving Anger Scale items yielded three factors measuring anger generated by the reckless driving, direct hostility and impeded progress by others—contrary to the six subscales found with the original US sample. Younger drivers and low mileage drivers were more likely to exhibit all three types of driving anger, but no differences between male and female drivers were found. In addition, a driver’s safety orientation predicted (negatively) anger evoked by impeded progress and direct hostility whereas self-assessed perceptual-motor skills were positively related to anger generated by impeded progress. Both Highway Code and aggressive violations were significantly related to the anger factors, and, using the procedure by Baron and Kenny ( Baron & Kenny (1986) . The moderator–mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51 , 1173–1182.), the prediction of violating behaviour (Driver Behaviour Questionnaire) by reported anger was shown to be mediated by the self-assessed safety skill scale but not the perceptual-motor skill scale (Driver Skill Inventory), and moderated by neither. Implications for driver education countermeasures are noted.

Group Cognitive Therapy for Depression Produces Clinically Significant Reliable Change in Community-based Settings

This paper reports on two studies which show that cognitive therapy effects as much individual change when presented in small group format, a swhen presented in individual format to community-based populations suffering depression

Dimensions of perceived stress in a British police force

70% of a sample of Constables, Sergeants and Inspectors from a large provincial British police force reported regularly feeling stressed. Officers rated the stressfulness of 24 occupations (including police officer), 23 police role and organizational Stressors (e.g. poor shift patterns), and 20 typical policing tasks (e.g. dealing with sudden death). Factor analyses identified the dimensions underlying each set. A number of policing tasks (e.g. dealing with the mentally ill) loaded on more than one factor, suggesting they bear more than one type of Stressor for the attending officer. Variations of factor scores with officers’ sex, rank, age and length of service suggest differential demographic susceptibility to different dimensions of stress. Multiple regression indicated that, for Constables, reported frequency of feeling stressed covaried with four factors, interpreted as: dealing with ‘people not like us’, (e.g. drug users and suppliers, external agencies); feeling ‘under attack’ (e.g. from verbal agg...

Effect of socialization factors on decisions to prosecute

Scottish police recruits rated the effect of various circumstances on decisions whether or not to take action against a hypothetical traffic offender. Ratings were obtained at induction (Basic group) and after one years service (Advanced group), both before and after training periods. Factor analysis showed a primary “in-group” factor before training, together with subsidiary “special cases” and “costs and benefits” factors, on all of which the Basic group was significantly more ready to take action. Factor analysis of the after-training responses showed that the primary factor was special cases, with subsidiary in-group and out-group factors. The Basic group was not significantly different from the Advanced group on the latter two, but was still more likely to take action against special cases. These results are discussed in terms of organizational socialization and professional culture.

Translating the psychobiology of post-traumatic stress disorder into clinically useful analogy.

Psychological theorizing about post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) has developed considerably since early behavioural formulations (Brewin, Dalgleish, & Joseph, 1996; Mowrer, 1960) and there have been parallel developments in biological understanding (Yehuda, 1998). However clinical practice has not been affected by the new psychobiology. It is suggested that it is possible to translate this new understanding into a clinically useful analogy that will help circumvent the difficulties of forming a therapeutic alliance with trauma victims which have been reported (Pitman et al., 1991; Scott & Stradling, 1997).