Stephen Gourlay

Conceptualizing Knowledge Creation: A Critique of Nonaka's Theory

Nonakas proposition that knowledge is created through the interaction of tacit and explicit knowledge involving four modes of knowledge conversion is flawed. Three of the modes appear plausible but none are supported by evidence that cannot be explained more simply. The conceptual framework omits inherently tacit knowledge, and uses a radically subjective definition of knowledge: knowledge is in effect created by managers. A new framework is proposed suggesting that different kinds of knowledge are created by different kinds of behaviour. Following Dewey, non-reflectional behaviour is distinguished from reflective behaviour, the former being associated with tacit knowledge, and the latter with explicit knowledge. Some of the implications for academic and managerial practice are considered.

Towards conceptual clarity for ‘tacit knowledge’: a review of empirical studies

Tacit knowledge is important for organizations and management, but we lack adequate theory, and find conflicting claims about the concept. A review of empirical studies of tacit knowledge phenomena found the term has been applied to both articulable and inarticulable knowledge. It is suggested that in the interests of clarity use of the term should be limited to the latter. Tacit knowledge appears due to both experience with the particular objects it is applied to, and to general experiences. A solution to the problem of tacit knowledge explication is proposed, and implications of the study for both managerial and academic practice are outlined.

Knowing as semiosis : steps towards a reconceptualization of "tacit knowledge"

The importance of tacit knowledge in and for organizations is widely attested to. As Baumard (1999: 8, 22) wrote, tacit knowledge is the basis of expertise, it is critical to daily management activities, and is a firm’s source of competitive advantage (see also Wagner and Sternberg, 1986; Lubit, 2001; Ambrosini and Bowman, 2001; Johannessen et al., 2001; Berman et al., 2002; Marwick, 2001). Nevertheless it appears that there are flaws in the argument for tacit knowledge, and that we lack agreement on what the phrase refers to, which bode ill for any attempts to manage it. This chapter will argue that Polanyi has largely been misunderstood, but that his focus on knowing, an activity, and Dewey and Bentley’s (1949) treatment of knowing as semiosis opens the way for a potentially more coherent approach to tacit knowledge.

Trends in outsourcing HRD in the UK: the implications for strategic HRD

This paper makes the case for a rigorous analysis of HR outsourcing, and reports preliminary findings of research into HRD outsourcing in the UK. Results cover the scope and extent of outsourcing, reasons for outsourcing, how outsourcing decisions are taken and by whom, and reported effects from outsourcing.

Explaining health managers’ information-seeking behaviour and use

The aims of the project were to analyse the information behaviour of health service managers in decision-making, to identify the facilitators and barriers to the use of information, and to develop guidelines for improving practice. The study employed a mixed methodology in two phases - five qualitative case studies, and a national survey of managers, and NHS librarians. Managers used a variety of different sources, online, written, people/ networks, and education and training courses. Internet/online sources were very widely used, but personal contacts are more important, and there was also a heavy use of internal Trust data. Only one third found it easy to find information relevant to their work as a manager. They also found it difficult to access information either through lack of time, information overload, or not knowing where to find it. Training in information search was helpful, but those with significant expertise in search and research based sources – librarians and medical staff – reported most difficulty in finding information related to management. However, those who have studied management find it easier, indicating that grounding in management knowledge is important for effective search, selection and application.

The determinants and consequences of adult nursing staff turnover: a systematic review of systematic reviews

BackgroundNurses leaving their jobs and the profession are an issue of international concern, with supply-demand gaps for nurses reported to be widening. There is a large body of existing literature, much of which is already in review form. In order to advance the usefulness of the literature for nurse and human resource managers, we undertook an overview (review of systematic reviews). The aim of the overview was to identify high quality evidence of the determinants and consequences of turnover in adult nursing.MethodsReviews were identified which were published between 1990 and January 2015 in English using electronic databases (the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, MEDLINE, EMBASE, Applied Social Sciences Index and Abstracts, CINAHL plus and SCOPUS) and forward searching. All stages of the review were conducted in parallel by two reviewers. Reviews were quality appraised using the Assessment of Multiple Systematic Reviews and their findings narratively synthesised.ResultsNine reviews were included. We found that the current evidence is incomplete and has a number of important limitations. However, a body of moderate quality review evidence does exist giving a picture of multiple determinants of turnover in adult nursing, with - at the individual level - nurse stress and dissatisfaction being important factors and -at the organisational level - managerial style and supervisory support factors holding most weight. The consequences of turnover are only described in economic terms, but are considered significant.ConclusionsIn making a quality assessment of the review as well as considering the quality of the included primary studies and specificity in the outcomes they measure, the overview found that the evidence is not as definitive as previously presented from individual reviews. Further research is required, of rigorous research design, whether quantitative or qualitative, particularly against the outcome of actual turnover as opposed to intention to leave.Trial registrationPROSPERO Registration 17 March 2015: CRD42015017613.

An Activity Centered Framework for Knowledge Management

Knowledge management theory and practice is dominated by two over-arching concepts: tacit and explicit knowledge. It is argued in this chapter that tacit knowledge is poorly conceptualized, and applied to disparate phenomena. Other disciplines testifying to action without awareness manage without invoking tacit knowledge, a course of action advocated here. Explicit knowledge is typically treated as unproblematic, an assumption challenged here by exploration of some issues in knowledge transfer, and with reference to reading research. Knowledge itself is admittedly a difficult concept, but it is argued that in all this we are in effect concerned with two types of activity: routine activity on the one hand, and reflective activity on the other. The chief characteristics of each are indicated, and a framework showing their inter-relations is outlined that helps draw together important aspects of knowledge management’s concerns.

What aspects of intentional rounding work in hospital wards, for whom and in what circumstances? A realist evaluation protocol

Introduction Intentional rounding (IR) is a structured process whereby nurses in hospitals carry out regular checks, usually hourly, with individual patients using a standardised protocol to address issues of positioning, pain, personal needs and placement of items. The widespread implementation of IR across the UK has been driven by the recommendations of the Francis Inquiry although empirical evidence of its effectiveness is poor. This paper presents a protocol of a multimethod study using a realist evaluation approach to investigate the impact and effectiveness of IR in hospital wards on the organisation, delivery and experience of care from the perspective of patients, their family members and staff. Methods and analysis The study will be conducted in four phases. Phase 1: theory development using realist synthesis to generate hypotheses about what the mechanisms of IR may be, what particular groups may benefit most or least and what contextual factors might be important to its success or failure which will be tested in subsequent phases of the study. Phase 2: a national survey of all NHS acute trusts to explore how IR is implemented and supported across England. Phase 3: case studies to explore how IR is implemented ‘on the ground’, including individual interviews with patients, family members and staff, non-participant observation, retrieval of routinely collected patient outcomes and cost analysis. Phase 4: accumulative data analysis across the phases to scrutinise data for patterns of congruence and discordance and develop an overall evaluation of what aspects of IR work, for whom and in what circumstances. Ethics and dissemination The study has been approved by NHS South East Coast—Surrey Research Ethics Committee. Findings will be published in a wide range of outputs targeted at key audiences, including patient and carer organisations, nursing staff and healthcare managers.

Exploring the relationship between job satisfaction and organizational commitment : an instrumental variable approach

Abstract The possible role of job satisfaction (JS) on organizational commitment (OC) has been a very important and hotly debated topic among experts. However, existing studies have yielded mixed results potentially due to utilization of small datasets, different methodological designs, estimation techniques that do not control for potential endogeneity between the variables, or a combination of these issues. Using a large matched employer-employee data-set from Britain (WERS2011), we find that increases in employees’ JS positively influence OC. We also show that this relationship holds when an instrumental variable framework (IV ordered probit/IV probit) is adopted to take into account the potential endogeneity of JS. However, throughout the analysis, the IV estimates are smaller in magnitude in comparison to where JS is considered as an exogenous variable. Moreover, utilising a two-stage probit least square (2SPLS) estimator, we support our previous findings i.e. increased JS is likely to lead to enhanced OC, but we also show that greater OC leads to higher levels of JS suggesting that JS and OC are likely to be reciprocally related. Overall, the IV estimates confirm the importance of addressing the endogeneity issue in the analysis of the relationship between JS and OC.

Realist synthesis of intentional rounding in hospital wards: exploring the evidence of what works, for whom, in what circumstances and why

Background Intentional rounding (IR) is a structured process whereby nurses conduct one to two hourly checks with every patient using a standardised protocol. Objective A realist synthesis of the evidence on IR was undertaken to develop IR programme theories of what works, for whom, in what circumstances and why. Methods A three-stage literature search and a stakeholder consultation event was completed. A variety of sources were searched, including AMED, CINAHL, MEDLINE, PsycINFO, HMIC, Google and Google Scholar, for published and unpublished literature. In line with realist synthesis methodology, each study’s ‘fitness for purpose’ was assessed by considering its relevance and rigour. Results A total of 44 papers met the inclusion criteria. To make the programme theories underpinning IR explicit, we identified eight a priori propositions: (1) when implemented in a comprehensive and consistent way, IR improves healthcare quality and satisfaction, and reduces potential harms; (2) embedding IR into daily routine practice gives nurses ‘allocated time to care’; (3) documenting IR checks increases accountability and raises fundamental standards of care; (4) when workload and staffing levels permit, more frequent nurse–patient contact improves relationships and increases awareness of patient comfort and safety needs; (5) increasing time when nurses are in the direct vicinity of patients promotes vigilance, provides reassurance and reduces potential harms; (6) more frequent nurse–patient contact enables nurses to anticipate patient needs and take pre-emptive action; (7) IR documentation facilitates teamwork and communication; and (8) IR empowers patients to ask for what they need to maintain their comfort and well-being. Given the limited evidence base, further research is needed to test and further refine these propositions. Conclusions Despite widespread use of IR, this paper highlights the paradox that there is ambiguity surrounding its purpose and limited evidence of how it works in practice.