Stephen J. Vodanovich

Psychometric measures of boredom: a review of the literature.

Abstract This research presents a review of the psychometric measures on boredom that have been developed over the past 25 years. Specifically, the author examined the Boredom Proneness Scale (BPS; R. Farmer & N. D. Sundberg, 1986), the job boredom scales by E. A. Grubb (1975) and T. W. Lee (1986), a boredom coping measure (J. A. Hamilton, R. J. Haier, & M. S. Buchsbaum, 1984). 2 scales that assess leisure and free-time boredom (S. E. Iso-Ahola & E. Weissinger, 1990; M. G. Ragheb & S. P. Merydith, 2001), the Sexual Boredom Scale (SBS; J. D. Watt & J. E. Ewing, 1996), and the Boredom Susceptibility (BS) subscale of the Sensation Seeking Scale (M. Zuckerman, 1979a). Particular attention is devoted to discussing the literature regarding the psychometric properties of the BPS because it is the only full-scale measure on the construct of boredom.

STATE-TRAIT BOREDOM: RELATIONSHIP TO ABSENTEEISM, TENURE, AND JOB SATISFACTION

The relationship between job outcomes (i.e., satisfaction, absenteeism, and tenure) and measures of state (Job Boredom Scale) and trait (Boredom Proneness Scale) boredom was investigated. Data collected from 292 workers in a manufacturing plant in the southeast United States indicated that individuals scoring high on both types of boredom were significantly more dissatisfied with the work itself, pay, promotion, supervisor, and coworkers as assessed by the Job Descriptive Index. Those high in job boredom possessed significantly greater absenteeism and longer organizational tenure. Implications for job design and personnel selection are discussed.

The Multidimensional Nature of Ageism: Construct Validity and Group Differences

The authors investigated the factor structure and construct validity of the Fraboni Scale of Ageism (FSA; M. Fraboni, R. Saltstone, & S. Hughes, 1990) and the age and gender differences in ageism scores. Confirmatory factor analyses supported the multidimensional nature of FSA scores and generally corroborated the initial factor structure reported by M. Fraboni, with some notable exceptions. Essentially, the present findings were aligned with theoretical models of ageism that emphasize both cognitive facets and affective facets. That is, on the basis of their factor analytic findings, the authors redefined Frabonis original factors of Antilocution, Avoidance, and Discrimination as Stereotypes, Separation, and Affective Attitudes, respectively, because of the clustering of items within factors. The revised 3-factor structure accounted for 36.4% of the variance in FSA scores. FSA factor scores significantly related to other scores from other measures of age-related attitudes, with higher correlations among factors that were similar in terms of their cognitive nature versus their affective nature. Finally, younger individuals and men had significantly higher ageism scores on the FSA than older individuals and women. The authors discussed the importance of adequately assessing ageism, with particular emphasis devoted to the understanding of age bias.

A field study of distributive and procedural justice as predictors of satisfaction and organizational commitment

The effects of distributive (outcome) and procedural factors on the satisfaction and organizational commitment of university administrative and support (i.e., non-faculty) personnel (N=138) were examined two months after a restructuring of job classifications. Aspects of outcome were stronger predictors of satisfaction and commitment than were aspects of procedure. Neither fairness nor level of outcome consistently interacted with procedural justice. The relative importance of distributive and procedural factors may vary across time and/or may be due to employees using an inductive process in assessing organizational outcomes. Suggestions include the need to investigate distributive and procedural factors separately and the necessity of employing longitudinal designs. Implications for practitioners and researchers are discussed.

Workplace safety performance: conscientiousness, cognitive failure, and their interaction.

This research investigated the effects of cognitive failure on workplace safety and accidents over 2 studies. It was hypothesized that cognitive failure would directly predict safety behavior and workplace accidents and predict these outcomes over and above conscientiousness. It was found that cognitive failure uniquely accounted for workplace safety behavior and accidents. However, it has been suggested by researchers that certain individual differences might interact to produce differential effects. Thus, a moderated model was tested examining the interaction of cognitive failure and conscientiousness. It was found that cognitive failure moderated the relationship between conscientiousness and accidents and unsafe work behaviors. Overall, results suggest that cognitive failure plays an important part in individual safety behavior, especially when conscientiousness is low.

Boredom proneness: its relationship to psychological- and physical-health symptoms.

The relationship between boredom proneness and health-symptom reporting was examined. Undergraduate students (N = 200) completed the Boredom Proneness Scale and the Hopkins Symptom Checklist. A multiple analysis of covariance indicated that individuals with high boredom-proneness total scores reported significantly higher ratings on all five subscales of the Hopkins Symptom Checklist (Obsessive-Compulsive, Somatization, Anxiety, Interpersonal Sensitivity, and Depression). The results suggest that boredom proneness may be an important element to consider when assessing symptom reporting. Implications for determining the effects of boredom proneness on psychological- and physical-health symptoms. as well as the application in clinical settings, are discussed.

A confirmatory approach to the factor structure of the boredom proneness scale : Evidence for a two-factor short form

We analyzed previous exploratory factor analytic structures on the Boredom Proneness Scale (BPS; Farmer & Sundberg, 1986) using confirmatory factor analysis in structural equation modeling in LISREL 8 (Joreskog & Sorbom, 1993). These analyses indicated that 2 factors were generally consistent across 6 exploratory models. Items that had significant loadings on these two factors (N = 12; 6 for each factor) indicated a lack of Internal Stimulation and External Stimulation. In further analysis on these 12 items using LISREL, we found a much improved fit and provided support for a short form version of the original BPS. We also found the shortened version to be invariant across gender. We discuss implications for the more precise measurement of boredom proneness and the use of the scale in applied settings.

BOREDOM PRONENESS: ITS RELATIONSHIP TO POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE AFFECT '

170 undergraduate students completed the Boredom Proneness Scale by Farmer and Sundberg and the Multiple Affect Adjective Checklist by Zuckerman and Lubin. Significant negative relationships were found between boredom proneness and negative affect scores (i.e., Depression, Hostility, Anxiety). Significant positive correlations also obtained between boredom proneness and positive affect (i.e., Positive Affect, Sensation Seeking). The correlations between boredom proneness “subscales” and positive and negative affect were congruent with those obtained using total boredom proneness scores. Implications for counseling are discussed.

Predicting cognitive failures from boredom proneness and daytime sleepiness scores: an investigation within military and undergraduate samples

The current study examines the relationship between cognitive failures, daytime sleepiness, and boredom proneness within two populations. A military and a university sample completed the Cognitive Failures Questionnaire, Boredom Proneness Scale, and the Epworth Sleepiness Scale. Results indicated that higher daytime sleepiness and boredom proneness scores are predictive of higher cognitive failure scores. The military sample had significantly higher daytime sleepiness and cognitive failure scores as compared to the university sample. Possible implications and applications for using scores on these measures to assess individuals in educational and industrial settings are discussed, as well as possible treatments for individuals scoring high on these measures.

CAN ACCIDENTS AND INDUSTRIAL MISHAPS BE PREDICTED? FURTHER INVESTIGATION INTO THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN COGNITIVE FAILURE AND REPORTS OF ACCIDENTS

The ability of the Cognitive Failures Questionnaire (CFQ) to predict accidents and job performance ratings was investigated. A participant pool of 240 electrical workers anonymously completed the CFQ and an information sheet. Results indicated that CFQ scores and the Blunder factor could predict automobile accidents and work accidents, while the Blunders and Distractibility subscales could predict overall performance ratings. Additionally, to increase the generalizability of the study both self-reports and objective reports of safety behavior were collected. Results demonstrated that both types of reports overlapped substantially. Implications and limitations of the present study are discussed, as well as future research.