Stephen N. Elliott

Social Skills Interventions for Children

Children who exhibit social skills deficits experience short-term, and often long-term, negative consequences. Reasons for such deficits, which have treatment utility, are reviewed and a number of procedures for treating childrens social skills deficits are examined. In this article, these procedures are categorized into one of three broad and somewhat overlapping treatment approaches: operant conditioning, social learning, or cognitive-behavioral procedures. Descriptions of specific treatment procedures are provided, along with an examination of the effectiveness data, to support the various approaches to enhancing childrens social behavior. The research literature provides strong support for the use of operant and social learning techniques, particularly with preschool and elementary school children.

The Relationship Between Adaptive Behavior and Social Skills Issues in Definition and Assessment

Social skills and adaptive behavior represent two subdomains of the superordinate construct of social competence. Adaptive behavior is viewed as the effectiveness and degree to which an individual meets social/cultural standards of personal independence and social responsibility. Social skills represent behaviors which, in specific situations, predict important social outcomes for children and youth. This article presents a conceptualization of social competence relevant for school settings. Relationships between adaptive behavior and social skills are documented and a classification system for social competence deficits is provided. Assessment procedures for classification and intervention purposes will be described with special reference to commonly used adaptive behavior measures.

Leadership for learning: A research-based model and taxonomy of behaviors

In this article, the authors examine the components of leadership for learning employing research on highly productive schools and school districts and high-performing principals and superintendents, using a three-dimensional model of productivity. The knowledge base of leadership for learning is captured under eight major dimensions: vision for learning, instructional program, curricular program, assessment program, communities of learning, resource acquisition and use, organizational culture, and advocacy.

Development and validation of the academic competence evaluation scales

The purpose of this study was to clarify the construct of academic competence and develop a valid teacher rating instrument to assess this construct. A 95-item pilot scale, the Academic Competence Evaluation Scales (ACES), was developed to assess the theoretical components (i.e., academic skills, study skills, academic motivation, interpersonal skills, and academic self-concept) hypothesized to contribute to the construct of academic competence. The ACES was administered to 56 teachers who rated 300 students in Grades 1 through 6. To explore convergent and discriminant validity, 13 teachers completed ratings of social skills, problem behaviors, and academic competence (as measured by the Social Skills Rating System; SSRS) for 60 students. In addition, 32 students completed the Iowa Test of Basic Skills (ITBS), a popular measure of academic achievement. Teacher feedback, item Importance ratings, item-ITBS correlations, and the results of an exploratory factor analysis were used to eliminate 35 items from the pilot scale. The resulting 60-item version of the ACES consists of five related scales: Academic Skills, Interpersonal Skills, Academic Motivation, Participation, and Study Skills. Internal consistency (median a = .95) and test-retest stability (median r= .83) were high for the ACES, and correlational analyses indicated that scores from the ACES are valid indicators of student academic competence. Implications for using the ACES are discussed, and suggestions are offered for research necessary to advance the development of the ACES as a reliable and valid clinical tool.

Acceptability of Behavioral Interventions Used in Classrooms: The Influence of Amount of Teacher Time, Severity of Behavior Problem, and Type of Intervention.

This article explored factors related to teacher judgments that an intervention is either acceptable or unacceptable for use in typical classroom environments. The acceptability of various interventions was assessed by having 180 preservice and student teachers read case studies involving a classroom intervention and then judging the acceptability of the intervention according to five factors — whether the intervention was considered generally acceptable, whether it posed undue risk to the child, whether it required excessive teacher time, whether it had negative effects on nontarget children, and whether it required such high levels of teacher skill that the typical teacher could not implement it. The major outcomes of the study included: (a) the determination that acceptability of a classroom intervention is not a unitary concept, rather it embodies five components; (b) the construction of a reliable instrument for assessing the acceptability of classroom interventions; and(c) the finding that various interventions differ markedly in their acceptability. Results are discussed in terms of relevance to developing interventions that are effective and yet can be utilized by regular classroom teachers.

Social Skills Deficits as a Primary Learning Disability

Advances in the definition of social skills deficits in children and youth with learning disabilities are presented and critiqued. The proposed modified definition of learning disability by the Interagency Committee on Learning Disabilities, which includes social skills deficits as a specific learning disability, is presented and discussed. This definition is analyzed from primary, secondary, and social learning theory causative hypotheses. Development of an adequate assessment technology is viewed as critical to the identification and classification of social skills deficits in children and youth with learning disabilities.

Meta-analysis for single-case consultation outcomes: Applications to research and practice

Abstract The application of meta-analysis holds much appeal for single-case consultation outcome research. We review a meta-analytic method for using within-study treatment effect sizes in reporting consultation outcomes. The strengths and limitations of traditional group design meta-analysis are examined. Various methods for analyzing single-case outcomes are discussed briefly, followed by an examination of the use of meta-analysis in single-case reviews across independent studies. Within-study meta-analytic results are presented that were derived from treatments implemented in consultations in natural settings. To conclude the article, an illustration is offered of a single-case data analysis display that incorporates meta-analytic results along with other indices of treatment outcome. Recommendations are provided for using meta-analytic methods to evaluate outcomes of single-case consultation treatment.

Acceptability of Behavioral Treatments in Educational Settings

Numerous effective treatment procedures for children exhibiting learning and behavior problems have been developed and researched. However, many of the most effective treatments are often unacceptable and underutilized. The concern about the acceptability and utilization of treatments has been a persistent and central theme in behavioral psychology as attested to by O’Leary (1984), Reppucci and Saunders (1974), and Stolz (1981). Explanations for the poor acceptance and utilization of behavioral treatments have ranged from concerns about the potential for restricting individual rights (U.S. Congress 1974a, 1974b) to issues of terminology or jargon (Kazdin & Cole, 1981; Witt, Moe, Gutkin, & Andrews, 1984; Woolfolk, Woolfolk, & Wilson, 1977).

Extended Time as a Testing Accommodation: Its Effects and Perceived Consequences

This investigation examined the effect of an extended time testing accommodation on the performance of students with disabilities, students educationally at risk in math, and students without disabilities. Ninety-seven eighth-grade students completed two equivalent forms of a standardized mathematics test, each under different testing conditions (standard time 20 mins.; extended time 40 mins.). It was predicted that both disability status and mathematical skill level would interact with the effectiveness of the extended time accommodation, such that students with disabilities and students with low math skills would benefit significantly from the extended time accommodation, but students without disabilities would not. Outcomes indicated that there were no significant differences by disability status; however, there was evidence to support differences between the three student groups in the amount of change in their performance in the two time conditions. Follow-up surveys indicated that the vast majority of students reacted more positively to the accommodated or extra time condition than to the nonaccommodated condition. These results are discussed within a validity framework and future research is outlined on extended time as an accommodation.

Base rates of social skills acquisition/performance deficits, strengths, and problem behaviors: an analysis of the Social Skills Improvement System--Rating Scales.

Base rate information is important in clinical assessment because one cannot know how unusual or typical a phenomenon is without first knowing its base rate in the population. This study empirically determined the base rates of social skills acquisition and performance deficits, social skills strengths, and problem behaviors using a nationally representative sample of children and adolescent ages 3-18 years. Using the national standardization sample of the Social Skills Improvement System--Rating Scales (N = 4,550) across 3 informants (teacher, parent, and student) and across 3 broad age groupings (3-5 years, 5-12 years, and 13-18 years), these base rates were computed. Results showed that the base rates for social skills acquisition deficits and problem behaviors are extremely low in the general population. Base rates for social skills performance deficits and social skills strengths were considerably higher, with students in the 5- to 12-year-old age group reporting fewer performance deficits and more social skills strengths than older children (13-18 years). Teachers and parents reported more performance deficits and fewer social skills strengths across all age groups than students in the 5- to 12-year-old age group. These results are discussed in terms of the utility of base rate information in clinical decision making.