Stephen P. Bird

Designing resistance training programmes to enhance muscular fitness: a review of the acute programme variables.

AbstractThe popularity of resistance training has grown immensely over the past 25 years, with extensive research demonstrating that not only is resistance training an effective method to improve neuromuscular function, it can also be equally effective in maintaining or improving individual health status. However, designing a resistance training programme is a complex process that incorporates several acute programme variables and key training principles. The effectiveness of a resistance training programme to achieve a specific training outcome (i.e. muscular endurance, hypertrophy, maximal strength, or power) depends on manipulation of the acute programme variables, these include: (i) muscle action; (ii) loading and volume; (iii) exercise selection and order; (iv) rest periods; (v) repetition velocity; and (vi) frequency. Ultimately, it is the acute programme variables, all of which affect the degree of the resistance training stimuli, that determine the magnitude to which the neuromuscular, neuroendocrine and musculoskeletal systems adapt to both acute and chronic resistance exercise. This article reviews the available research that has examined the application of the acute programme variables and their influence on exercise performance and training adaptations. The concepts presented in this article represent an important approach to effective programme design. Therefore, it is essential for those involved with the prescription of resistance exercise (i.e. strength coaches, rehabilitation specialists, exercise physiologists) to acquire a fundamental understanding of the acute programme variables and the importance of their practical application in programme design.

Influence of Circadian Time Structure on Acute Hormonal Responses to a Single Bout of Heavy-Resistance Exercise in Weight-Trained Men

Both testosterone (T) and cortisol (C) exhibit circadian rhythmicity being highest in the morning and lowest in the evening. T is a potent stimulator of protein synthesis and may possess anti-catabolic properties within skeletal muscle, and C affects protein turnover, thereby altering the balance between hormone-mediated anabolic and catabolic activity. Physiological reactions of these hormones and training adaptations may influence the post-exercise recovery phase by modulating anabolic and catabolic processes, therefore affecting metabolic equilibrium, and may lead to intensification of catabolic processes. We investigated the effect of the circadian system on the T and C response of weight-trained men to heavy resistance exercise. Thirteen young (21.8±2.2 yr) weight-trained men (12 months training experience) performed an eight-station heavy-resistance exercise protocol on two separate occasions (AM: 06:00 h and PM: 18:00 h), completing 3 sets of 8–10 repetitions at 75% of each subjects one-repetition maximum (1-RM). Blood samples were obtained prior to, during, and following the exercise bout, and serum total T and C concentrations were determined by competitive immunoassay technique. Performing the single bout of heavy-resistance exercise in the PM as compared to the AM positively altered the C and T/C ratio hormonal response. Pre-exercise C concentrations were significantly lower (p < 0.05) in the PM session, which resulted in a lower peak value, and the accompanying increased T/C ratio suggested a reduced catabolic environment. These data demonstrate that the exercise-induced hormonal profile can be influenced by the circadian time structure toward a profile more favorable for anabolism, therefore optimizing skeletal muscle hypertrophic adaptations associated with resistance exercise.

Effects of changing from full range of motion to partial range of motion on squat kinetics

Abstract Drinkwater, EJ, Moore, NR, and Bird, SP. Effects of changing from full range of motion to partial range of motion on squat kinetics. J Strength Cond Res 26(4): 890–896, 2012—It is commonplace for people involved in recreational weight training to limit squat depth to lift heavier loads. This study compares differences in movement kinetics when squatting in the full range of motion (FROM) vs. partial range of motion (PROM). Ten men with a 1-year minimum of resistance training attended 4 sessions each comprising 4 sets of squats following one of FROM for 10 repetitions (FROM10) at an intensity of 67% 1 repetition maximum (1RM) FROM squat, PROM for 10 repetitions (PROM10) at 67% 1RM PROM squat, FROM for 5 repetitions (FROM5) at 83% FROM squat or PROM for 5 repetitions (PROM5) at 83% 1RM PROM squat. Movement velocity was not specified. Squat kinetics data were collected using an optical encoder. Differences between conditions were analyzed by repeated-measures analysis of variance and expressed as mean differences and standardized (Cohen) effect sizes with 95% confidence limits. The PROM5 power was substantially more than the PROM10 (98 W, −21 to 217; mean, lower and upper 95% confidence limits), FROM5 (168 W, 47–289), and FROM10 (255 W, 145–365). The force produced during PROM5 was substantially more than PROM10 (372 N, 254–490), FROM5 (854 N, 731–977), and FROM10 (1,069 N, 911–1227). The peak velocity produced during FROM10 was substantially more than FROM5 (0.105 m·s−1, 0.044–0.166), PROM10 (0.246 m·s−1, 0.167–0.325), and PROM5 (0.305 m·s−1, 0.228–0.382). The FROM5 was substantially more than FROM10 (86 J, 59–113), PROM5 (142 J, 90–194), and PROM10 (211 J, 165–257). Therefore, either range of motion can have practical implications in designing resistance training programs depending on if the training goal is related to power and force development, maximizing work output or speed. Moderate-load PROM training, common among recreational weight trainers, is unlikely to provide higher movement kinetics.

A randomised feasibility study of EPA and Cox-2 inhibitor (Celebrex) versus EPA, Cox-2 inhibitor (Celebrex), Resistance Training followed by ingestion of essential amino acids high in leucine in NSCLC cachectic patients - ACCeRT Study

BackgroundCancer cachexia is a syndrome of progressive weight loss. Non-small cell lung cancer patients experience a high incidence of cachexia of 61%. Research into methods to combat cancer cachexia in various tumour sites has recently progressed to the combination of agents.The combination of the anti-cachectic agent Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and the cyclo-oxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibitor celecoxib has been tested in a small study with some benefit. The use of progressive resistance training (PRT) followed by the oral ingestion of essential amino acids (EAA), have shown to be anabolic on skeletal muscle and acceptable in older adults and other cancer groups.The aim of this feasibility study is to evaluate whether a multi-targeted approach encompassing a resistance training and nutritional supplementation element is acceptable for lung cancer patients experiencing cancer cachexia.Methods/DesignAucklands Cancer Cachexia evaluating Resistance Training (ACCeRT) is an open label, prospective, randomised controlled feasibility study with two parallel arms. All patients will be treated with EPA and the COX-2 inhibitor celecoxib on an outpatient basis at the study site. In the experimental group patients will participate in PRT twice a week, followed by the ingestion of essential amino acids high in leucine. A total of 21 patients are planned to be enrolled. Patients will be randomised using 1:2 ratio with 7 patients enrolled into the control arm, and 14 patients into the treatment arm. The primary endpoint is the acceptability of the above multi-targeted approach, determined by an acceptability questionnaire.DiscussionTo our knowledge ACCeRT offers for the first time the opportunity to investigate the effect of stimulating the anabolic skeletal muscle pathway with the use of PRT along with EAA alongside the combination of EPA and celecoxib in this population.Trial registrationNetherlands Trial Register (NTR): ACTRN12611000870954

A lower limb assessment tool for athletes at risk of developing patellar tendinopathy

PURPOSE Patellar tendon abnormality (PTA) on diagnostic imaging is part of the diagnostic criteria for patellar tendinopathy. PTA and altered landing strategies are primary risk factors that increase the likelihood of asymptomatic athletes developing patellar tendinopathy. Therefore, the aim of this study was to examine the risk factors that are predictors of the presence and severity of a PTA in junior pre-elite athletes. METHODS Ten junior pre-elite male basketball athletes with a PTA were matched with 10 athletes with normal patellar tendons. Participants had patellar tendon morphology, Victorian Institute of Sport Assessment (VISA) score, body composition, lower limb flexibility, and maximum vertical jump height measured before performing five successful stop-jump tasks. During each stop-jump task, both two-dimensional and three-dimensional kinematics and ground reaction forces were recorded. Multiple regression analyses were used to identify factors for estimating PTA presence and severity, and discriminate analysis was used to classify PTA presence. RESULTS Sixty-eight percent of variance for presence of a PTA was accounted for by hip joint range of motion (ROM) and knee joint angle at initial foot-ground contact (IC) during stop-jump task and quadriceps flexibility, whereas hip joint ROM during stop-jump task and VISA score accounted for 62% of variance for PTA severity. Prediction of the presence of a PTA was achieved with 95% accuracy and 95% cross-validation. CONCLUSIONS An easily implemented, reliable, and valid movement screening tool composed of three criteria enables coaches and/or clinicians to predict the presence and severity of a PTA in asymptomatic athletes. This enables identification of asymptomatic athletes at higher risk of developing patellar tendinopathy, which allows the development of effective preventative measures to aid in the reduction of patellar tendinopathy injury prevalence.

Exploring the Deadlift

THE DEAD LIFT (DL) AND ITS VARIATIONS ARE WIDELY ACCEPTED BY STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING COACHES AS ONE OF THE “BIG 3” EXERCISES PRESCRIBED TO DEVELOP “TOTAL BODY STRENGTH,” SPECIFICALLY THE HIP AND KNEE EXTENSORS, SPINAL ERECTORS, QUADRATUS LUMBORUM, CORE ABDOMINAL MUSCULATURE, AND BACK AND FOREARM MUSCLES. THEREFORE, THE PURPOSE OF THIS COLUMN IS TO INTRODUCE STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING COACHES TO THE MANY SPORT-SPECIFIC APPLICATIONS FOR COMMON DL VARIATIONS USED IN STRENGTH TRAINING PROGRAM DESIGN, WITH SPECIFIC EMPHASIS ON THE ROMANIAN DL, FOR ITS POTENTIAL USE IN THE TEACHING PROGRESSION OF THE POWER CLEAN.

The Intraday Reliability of the Reactive Strength Index Calculated From a Drop Jump in Professional Men’s Basketball

PURPOSE To evaluate the reliability of the Reactive Strength Index (RSI) and jump-height (JH) performance from multiple drop heights in an elite population. METHODS Thirteen professional basketball players (mean±SD age 25.8±3.5 y, height 1.96±0.07 m, mass 94.8±8.2 kg) completed 3 maximal drop-jump attempts onto a jump mat at 4 randomly assigned box heights and 3 countermovement-jump trials. RESULTS No statistical difference was observed between 3 trials for both the RSI and JH variable at all the tested drop heights. The RSI for drop-jump heights from 20 cm resulted in a coefficient of variation (CV)=3.1% and an intraclass correlation (ICC α)=.96, 40 cm resulted in a CV=3.0% and an ICC α=.95, and 50 cm resulted in a CV=2.1% and an ICC α=.99. The JH variable at the 40-cm drop-jump height resulted in the highest reliability CV=2.8% and an ICC α=.98. CONCLUSION When assessing the RSI the 20-, 40-, and 50-cm drop heights are recommended with this population. When assessing large groups it appears that only 1 trial is required when assessing the RSI variable from the 20, 40-, and 50-cm drop heights.

Preseason Strength Training for Rugby Union: The General and Specific Preparatory Phases

THE FIELD OF STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING HAS SEEN THE RAPID DEVELOPMENT OF NEW TRAINING METHODS TO ENHANCE SPORT PERFORMANCE. WHILE THE TRAINING TECHNIQUES AND STRATEGIES MAY HAVE CHANGED, THE CORNERSTONE OF ATHLETIC DEVELOPMENT HAS NOT, IN THAT STRENGTH TRAINING DURING THE GENERAL PREPARATION PHASE REMAINS AN INTEGRAL COMPONENT IN ATHLETIC CONDITIONING FOR SPORT. IT IS THE PURPOSE OF THIS ARTICLE TO PRESENT PRESEASON STRENGTH TRAINING DURING THE PREPARATION PHASE IMPLEMENTED FOR THE 2009 RUGBY SEASON FOR SENIOR, AMATEUR, FIRST- AND SECOND-GRADE PLAYERS COMPETING IN THE DOMESTIC CENTRAL WEST RUGBY COMPETITION, NEW SOUTH WALES, AUSTRALIA.

Integrating balance and postural stability exercises into the functional warm up for youth athletes

SUMMARY THE GOAL OF THE FUNCTIONAL WARM-UP IS TO STIMULATE SENSORY AND MOTOR COMPONENTS RELATED TO PREPARATORY (FEED-FORWARD) AND REACTIVE (FEED-BACK) SYSTEMS THROUGH FUNCTIONALLY INTEGRATED MOVEMENT PATTERNS. THIS ARTICLE PRESENTS BALANCE AND POSTURAL STABILITY EXERCISES THAT ARE EASILY IMPLEMENTED INTO THE FUNCTIONAL WARM-UP AS A MOVEMENT PREPARATION STRATEGY FOR YOUTH ATHLETES.

The Role of the Trunk Control in Athletic Performance of a Reactive Change-of-Direction Task

Abstract Edwards, S, Austin, AP, and Bird, SP. The role of the trunk control in athletic performance of a reactive change-of-direction task. J Strength Cond Res 31(1): 126–139, 2017—Agility is vital to success in team sport competition with the trunk argued to play a key role in sport performance. This study explored the role of trunk control during a reactive change-of-direction task (R-COD) and field-based measures of athletic performance. Twenty male players completed field-based athletic performance assessments (modified Illinois agility test [mIAT], 3 repetition maximum back squat, and 5 countermovement jumps [CMJ]) and R-CODs, during which 3-dimensional ground reaction forces and kinematics were recorded. Trunk control was assessed as the sum of the trunk relative to the pelvis range of motion (ROM) in all 3 planes during the R-COD. Participants with the highest (HIGH, n = 7) and lowest (LOW, n = 7) trunk ROM values were grouped. The HIGH group achieved significantly shorter mIAT time duration, higher CMJ height, and lower knee flexion angles, greater trunk lateral flexion and rotation relative to pelvis, and greater angular momentum during the R-COD compared with the LOW group. Superior athletic performance was associated with decreased trunk control (high trunk ROM) during the R-COD. Although this study suggested that trunk control is a vital component of performance, it is unknown whether this trunk control is inherent or an effect of training history, nor does not support current optimal athletic performance recommendation of decreased trunk motion during R-COD.