Stephen P. Meyer

An Overview of Commuting in Canada with Special Emphasis on Rural Commuting and Employment

Abstract Due to changes in employment opportunities in many rural settings, it is important to understand the characteristics of all types of commuting that occur between rural and urban environments (and not just the case of rural to urban journey to work patterns). However, no Canada-wide study exists that considers all commuting types. With the use of customized tabulations from the 1991 Canadian census we examine all directional commuting flows for all areas of Canada (at the census subdivision level) and emphasize the commuting patterns and employment opportunities inherent to the rural component of the population. While only slight differences are detected between commuters based on demographic biographies, substantial contrasts in commuting tendencies are reported when the Canadian population is categorized by commuting type, industry, and region. The volume of commuting in Canada is poorly predicted by a gravity model regression application (using independent variables measuring distance and population), but the results do provide some valuable insights for future study.

Headquarters in Canada: An Analysis of Spatial Patterns

Despite recent dispersal trends, headquarters activity remains disproportionately present in identifiable clusters within large North American metropolitan areas. Through nearest neighbor and spatial autocorrelation analyses, we statistically confirm the concentrating tendencies of head offices in Toronto, Montreal, Calgary and Vancouver. It is also established that head offices operating within these four metropolitan areas show collective distinctiveness in where controlled subsidiaries are located internationally and in what industrial activity is emphasized. Finally, we evaluate (via Spearman r and Kruskal-Wallis H tests) which socioeconomic census variables are linked with head office districts in Toronto and Calgary. It is suggested that head office districts will feature a relative absence of families, high-density housing, and short-distance commuting. While head office areas in Toronto, a headquarters center at the top of the Canadian hierarchy, resonate prosperity, Calgary features head office districts that are income diverging.

Outward Canadian direct investment and place-specific attributes: an empirical analysis

Abstract As the activities of Canada-based multinational enterprises (MNEs) have fostered an impressive outflow of foreign direct investment (FDI) abroad, many empirical studies have been put forth to describe the characteristics and account for the reasons behind Canadian FDI. Yet, most of these Canada-based studies have relied on questionnaires (and surveyed only large MNEs) to fulfil data requirements and have given a less than complete view of Canadian MNE behaviour. A study that utilizes a larger data set (and is, therefore, not biased by company size or spatial area of consideration) is needed. To realize this goal, a sample of more than 4500 examples of Canadian FDI has been collected into a data set. From there, with the use of a regression analysis (and with considerable reliance on the resulting outliers), some of the determinants of Canadian MNE behaviour across the world and within the United States are uncovered. Spatially, the favourite target of Canadian outward FDI has been the United States and then the United Kingdom, but significant agglomerations of Canadian controlling capital can be found in many parts of the world (particularly in Western Europe, the Caribbean region, Australia, Brazil and in various Asian destinations). Canadian direct investment abroad is most attracted to: large foreign markets, countries that are well-established trading partners with Canada, and to favourable place-specific labour and aesthetics conditions. Evidence also suggests that countries with strong historical ties to Canada and a positive political attitude toward FDI are likely to receive a disproportionate amount of Canadian FDI as well. Also, distance from the Canadian border may bias some direct investment decisions into the U.S.

Naturopaths in Ontario, Canada: geographic patterns in intermediately-sized metropolitan areas and integration implications

Abstract Evaluating conventional medicine (CM) and complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) with respect to integration opportunities (such as patient referrals and professional knowledge sharing) and possible geographic implications is novel. This research utilizes nearest neighbour and local spatial autocorrelation statistical analyses and surveys directed towards Doctors of Naturopathic Medicine (NDs) and their patients to better understand the geographic patterns of NDs and potential integration qualities. While the statistical tests reveal that the offices of NDs and Doctors of Medicine (MDs) display clustered patterns in intermediately-sized census metropolitan areas in Ontario and that the majority of NDs are near MDs, proximity is not manifesting in discernible integration tendencies between NDs and MDs. The NDs polled were strongly in favour of greater integration with the CM sector (as were their patients) to: achieve better patient health outcomes and to gain efficiencies within the health care system. Yet, both surveys also indicate that the barriers to integration are substantial and, generally speaking, centre on the perception that many MDs lack respect for, and/or knowledge about, naturopathic approaches. It is speculated that as students in conventional medical schools are increasingly exposed to CAM approaches, perhaps more MDs in the future will be receptive to greater integration with CAM. Should this occur, then it is also possible that geographic proximity may be a catalyst for deeper CAM-CM integration; as it has been for CAM–CAM relationships.