Stephen Pistorius

A Wideband Microwave Tomography System With a Novel Frequency Selection Procedure

In this paper, we describe a 2-D wideband microwave imaging system intended for biomedical imaging. The system is capable of collecting data from 3 to 6 GHz, with 24 coresident antenna elements connected to a vector network analyzer via a 2 × 24 port matrix switch. As one of the major sources of error in the data collection process is a result of the strongly coupling 24 coresident antennas, we provide a novel method to avoid the frequencies where the coupling is large enough to prevent successful imaging. Through the use of two different nonlinear reconstruction schemes, which are an enhanced version of the distorted born iterative method and the multiplicative regularized contrast source inversion method, we show imaging results from dielectric phantoms in free space. The early inversion results show that with the frequency selection procedure applied, the system is capable of quantitatively reconstructing dielectric objects, and show that the use of the wideband data improves the inversion results over single-frequency data.

A two-step algorithm for predicting portal dose images in arbitrary detectors.

Recently, portal imagingsystems have been successfully demonstrated in dosimetric treatment verification applications, where measured and predicted images are quantitatively compared. To advance this approach to dosimetric verification, a two-step model which predicts dose deposition in arbitrary portal image detectors is presented. The algorithm requires patient CT data, source–detector distance, and knowledge of the incident beam fluence. The first step predicts the fluence entering a portal imaging detector located behind the patient. Primary fluence is obtained through ray-tracing techniques, while scatter fluence prediction requires a library of Monte Carlo-generated scatter fluence kernels. These kernels allow prediction of basic radiation transport parameters characterizing the scatteredphotons, including fluence and mean energy. The second step of the algorithm involves a superposition of Monte Carlo-generated pencil beam kernels, describing dose deposition in a specific detector, with the predicted incident fluence. This process is performed separately for primary and scatter fluence, and yields a predicted doseimage. A small but noticeable improvement in prediction is obtained by explicitly modeling the off-axis energy spectrum softening due to the flattening filter. The algorithm is tested on a slab phantom and a simple lung phantom (6 MV). Furthermore, an anthropomorphic phantom is utilized for a simulated lung treatment (6 MV), and simulated pelvis treatment (23 MV). Data were collected over a range of air gaps (10–80 cm). Detectors incorporating both low and high atomic number buildup are used to measure portal image profiles. Agreement between predicted and measured portal dose is better than 3% in areas of low dose gradient (<30%/cm) for all phantoms, air gaps, beam energies, and detector configurations tested here. It is concluded that this portal dose prediction algorithm is fast, accurate, allows separation of primary and scatterdose, and can model arbitrary detectors.

On Super-Resolution With an Experimental Microwave Tomography System

The resolution of an experimental microwave tomography (MWT) system is investigated. Using two cylindrical nylon targets and an operating frequency of 5 GHz, a separation resolution of 2 mm, or 1/30 of a wavelength, is achieved. While this resolution is among the highest reported in the literature, it is not a sufficiently robust indicator of the expected resolution obtainable for complex targets, and this is shown with further examples of more complicated targets. However, the basic separation resolution limit obtained is a good way of comparing various aspects of different MWT systems.

Analysis of Incident Field Modeling and Incident/Scattered Field Calibration Techniques in Microwave Tomography

Imaging with microwave tomography systems requires both the incident field within the imaging domain as well as calibration factors that convert the collected data to corresponding data in the numerical model used for inversion. The numerical model makes various simplifying assumptions, e.g., 2-D versus 3-D wave propagation, which the calibration coefficients are meant to take into account. For an air-based microwave tomography system, we study two types of calibration techniques-incident and scattered field calibration-combined with two different incident field models: a 2-D line-source and an incident field from full-wave 3-D simulation of the tomography system. Although the 2-D line-source approximation does not accurately model incident field in our system, the use of scattered field calibration with the 2-D line-source provides similar or better images to incident and scattered field calibration with an accurate incident field. Thus, if scattered field calibration is used, a simple (but inaccurate) incident field is acceptable for our microwave tomography system. While not strictly generalizable, we expect our methodology to be applicable to most other microwave tomography systems.

Monte Carlo studies of the exit photon spectra and dose to a metal/phosphor portal imaging screen.

The energy spectra and the dose to a Cu plate/Gd2O2S phosphor portal imaging detector were investigated for monoenergetic incident beams of photons (1.25, 2, and 5 MeV). The Monte Carlo method was used to characterize the influence of the patient/detector geometry, detector material and design, and incident beam energy on the spectral distribution and the dose, at the imaging detector plane, of a photon beam scattered from a water phantom. The results show that radiation equilibrium is lost in the air gap and that, for the geometries studied, this effect led to a reduction in the exit dose of up to 40%. The finding that the effects of the air gap and field size are roughly complementary has led to the hypothesis that an equivalent field size concept may be used to account for intensity and spectral changes arising from air gap variations. The copper plate preferentially attenuates the low-energy scattered photons incident on it, while producing additional annihilation, bremsstrahlung, and scattered photons. As a result, the scatter spectra at the copper surface entrance of the detector differs significantly from that at the Cu/phosphor interface. In addition, the mean scattered photon energy at the interface was observed to be roughly 0.4 MeV higher than the corresponding effective energy for 2 MeV incident beams. A comparison of the dose to various detector materials showed that exit dosimetry errors of up to 24% will occur if it is assumed that the Cu plate/Gd2O2S phosphor detector is water equivalent.

Photon scatter in portal images: physical characteristics of pencil beam kernels generated using the EGS Monte Carlo code.

Pencil beam kernels describing scattered photon fluence behind homogeneous water slabs at various air gap distances were generated using the EGS Monte Carlo code. Photon scatter fluence was scored in separate bins based on the particles history: singly scattered, multiply scattered, and bremsstrahlung and positron annihilation photons. Simultaneously, the mean energy and mean angle with respect to the incident photon pencil beam were tallied. Kernels were generated for incident photon pencil beams exhibiting monoenergetic spectra of 2.0 and 10.0 MeV, and polyenergetic spectra representative of 6 and 24 MV beams. Reciprocity was used to generate scatter fractions on the central axis for various field sizes, phantom thicknesses, and air gaps. The scatter kernels were further characterized by full width at half-maximum estimates. Modulation transfer functions were calculated, providing theoretical estimates of the limit of performance of portal imaging systems due to the intrinsic scattering of photon radiation through the patient.

Photon scatter in portal images: Accuracy of a fluence based pencil beam superposition algorithm

The accuracy of a pencil beam algorithm to predict scattered photon fluence into portal imaging systems was studied. A data base of pencil beam kernels describing scattered photon fluence behind homogeneous water slabs (1-50 cm thick) at various air gap distances (0-100 cm) was generated using the EGS Monte Carlo code. Scatter kernels were partitioned according to particle history: singly-scattered, multiply-scattered, and bremsstrahlung and positron annihilation photons. Mean energy and mean angle with respect to the incident photon pencil beam were also scored. This data allows fluence, mean energy, and mean angular data for each history type to be predicted using the pencil beam algorithm. Pencil beam algorithm predictions for 6 and 24 MV incident photon beams were compared against full Monte Carlo simulations for several inhomogeneous phantoms, including approximations to a lateral neck, and a mediastinum treatment. The accuracy of predicted scattered photon fluence, mean energy, and mean angle was investigated as a function of air gap, field size, photon history, incident beam resolution, and phantom geometry. Maximum errors in mean energies were 0.65 and 0.25 MeV for the higher and lower energy spectra, respectively, and 15 degrees for mean angles. The ability of the pencil beam algorithm to predict scatter fluence decreases with decreasing air gap, with the largest error for each phantom occurring at the exit surface. The maximum predictive error was found to be 6.9% with respect to the total fluence on the central axis. By maintaining even a small air gap (approximately 10 cm), the error in predicted scatter fluence may be kept under 3% for the phantoms and beam energies studied here. It is concluded that this pencil beam algorithm is sufficiently accurate (using International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements Report No. 24 guidelines for absorbed dose) over the majority of clinically relevant air gaps, for further investigation in a portal dose prediction algorithm.

A Novel Microwave Tomography System Based on the Scattering Probe Technique

In this paper, we introduce a novel microwave tomography system, which utilizes 24 double-layered Vivaldi antennas, each of which is equipped with a diode-loaded printed-wire probe. By biasing the probes diodes, the impedance of the probe is modified, allowing an indirect measurement of the electric field at the probes locations. Each printed-wire probe is loaded with five equally spaced p-i-n diodes, in series. We show that electric field data collected in this way within the proposed tomography system can be used to reconstruct the dielectric properties of an object of interest. Reconstructions for various objects are shown. Although the results are still preliminary, sufficient experimentation has been done to delineate the advantages of such an indirect method of collecting scattered-field data for tomographic imaging purposes.

Real time breast microwave radar image reconstruction using circular holography: A study of experimental feasibility

PURPOSE The purpose of this paper is to assess the experimental feasibility of a novel breast microwave radar reconstruction approach, circular holography, using realistic experimental datasets recorded using a preclinical experimental setup. The performance of this approach was quantitatively evaluated by calculating the signal to noise ratio, contrast to noise ratio, spatial accuracy, and reconstruction time. METHODS Six datasets were recorded, three corresponding to fatty cases and three containing synthetic dense tissue structures. Five of these datasets contained an 8 mm inclusion that emulated a malignant lesion. The data were acquired from synthetic phantoms that mimic the dielectric properties of breast tissues in the 1-6 GHz range using a custom experimental breast microwave radar system. The spatial accuracy and signal to noise ratio of the reconstructed was calculated for all the reconstructed images. The contrast to noise ratio of the reconstructed images corresponding to the datasets containing fibroglandular tissue regions was determined. This was done to evaluate the ability of the circular holographic method to provide images in which the responses from tumors can be distinguished from adjacent dense tissue structures. The execution time required to form the images was also measured to evaluate the data throughput of the holographic approach. RESULTS For all the reconstructed datasets, the location of the synthetic tumors in the experimental setup was consistent with its position in the reconstructed image. The average spatial error was 2.2 mm, which is less than half the spatial resolution of the data acquisition system. The average signal to noise ratio of the reconstructed images containing an artificial malignant lesion was 8.5 dB, while the average contrast to noise ratio was 6.7 dB. The reconstructed images presented no artifacts. The average execution time of the images formed using the proposed approach was 5 ms, which is six orders of magnitude faster than current state of the art breast microwave radar (BMR) reconstruction algorithms. CONCLUSIONS The results show that circular holography is capable of forming accurate images with signal to noise levels higher than 8 dB in quasi real time. Compared to BMR reconstruction algorithms tested on datasets containing dense tissue structures, the holographic approach generated images of similar spatial accuracy with higher signal to noise ratios and an acceleration factor of one order of magnitude.

Histogram Specification: A Fast and Flexible Method to Process Digital Images

Histogram specification has been successfully used in digital image processing over the years. Mainly used as an image enhancement technique, methods such as histogram equalization (HE) can yield good contrast with almost no effort in terms of inputs to the algorithm or the computational time required. More elaborate histograms can take on problems faced by HE at the expense of having to define the final histograms in innovative ways that may require some extra processing time but are nevertheless fast enough to be considered for real-time applications. This paper proposes a new technique for specifying a histogram to enhance the image contrast. To further evidence our faith on histogram specification techniques, we also discuss methods to modify images, e.g., to help segmentation approaches. Thus, as advocates of these techniques, we would like to emphasize the flexibility of this image processing approach to do more than enhancing images.