Stephen Silverman

Research on Teaching in Physical Education

This article reviews research on teaching in physical education. I first consider research methodology employed in this area and then examine research related to instructional effectiveness, classroom ecology, and cognition and decision making. Conclusions and future directions are then presented that have implications for researchers, teachers, and teacher educators.

Linear and curvilinear relationships between student practice and achievement in physical education

Abstract The purpose of this study was to examine relationships between student practice trials and achievement in physical education classes. Middle school/junior high school students (N = 202) were pretested and posttested on two volleyball skills. Between tests students received seven classes of instruction. Data were collected from videotapes on the quantity and quality of individual student practice trials. Linear, quadratic, and cubic relationships of practice with residualized achievement were determined. For both skills, appropriate practice trials were positively related to achievement and inappropriate trials negatively related to achievement. Other linear and curvilinear relationships were found.

Validation of scores from an instrument assessing student attitude toward physical education.

The purposes of this study were to develop an instrument to assess student attitude toward physical education and to provide psychometric evidence of reliability and validity of the interpretation of scores from the attitude instrument. The study was conducted in multiple phases: (a) elicitation study, (b) preliminary study, (c) content validity study, and (d) reliability and validity study. Participants for the elicitation study were 110 middle school students. Enjoyment and Perceived Usefulness emerged as the primary factors, whereas the physical education teacher, curriculum, and peers were found to be the primary subfactors through student elicitation. The preliminary study utilized 33 students. Participants for the content validity study were 35 experts in physical education pedagogy. The reliability and validity study involved 995 students (Grades 6, 7, and 8). Results indicate that this instrument produces reliable and valid scores based on the 2-component view of attitude. The hypothesized factor structure is a good fit to the observed data.

Student Characteristics, Practice, and Achievement in Physical Education.

Abstract The purpose of this study was to determine if students of differing initial skill levels and boys and girls receive different amounts and types of practice, and if correlations between appropriate and inappropriate trials and achievement were different for the various subgroups. Students (N = 202) and teachers in 10 middle school/junior high school physical education classes were the subjects for this study. Students in the classes were pretested, received instruction, and then were posttested on the forearm pass and underhand serve volleyball skills. Instruction was videotaped for subsequent coding of practice variables. Multivariate analysis of variance and analysis of variance were used to determine differences in appropriate, inappropriate, and total practice trials and the appropriate-to-inappropriate trial ratio for gender and skill-level combinations. Correlations of frequency of appropriate trials and inappropriate trials with achievement and differences in these correlations for skill gr...

Teacher feedback and achievement in physical education: Interaction with student practice

Abstract The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationships between teacher feedback and achievement in physical education. Students ( N = 202) were pretested, received instruction, and posttested. An instrument was developed and validated to collect data on the amount and type of feedback received by individual students. Significant relationships were found for limited combinations where the type of feedback was positive, corrective, descriptive, or prescriptive. Various summed categories of prescriptive, descriptive, and corrective feedback showed significant part correlations with achievement when appropriate practice was a covariate. The results from this study suggest that relationships of feedback with achievement may be subject matter specific.

Relationships of Organization, Time, and Student Achievement in Physical Education.

Abstract The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships between the way time is used in physical education classes and student achievement. Teachers of 10 classes and their middle school/junior high school students were the subjects for the study. Students were pretested and posttested on the volleyball forearm pass and serve using previously validated tests. Between the two testing sessions students received 7 days of instruction in these skills. All classes were videotaped using a two-camera split screen system so that virtually all activity in the gym could be identified later. Digitally displayed running time was superimposed on the video image. Student achievement for each class was determined separately for each skill by regressing posttest on pretest and calculating a residual score for every student. The mean of the residual scores for each class was calculated and used in subsequent analysis. A multifaceted observation instrument was developed and validated for collecting data which reflected how time was spent in class. Mean residual achievement was correlated with time spent in the various categories of class organization. For both skills, total time spent in practice with teacher feedback had a significant positive correlation with student achievement. When subcategories of practice were considered, individual student practice and reciprocal practice by student pairs were positively correlated with achievement. The use of scrimmage had a negative correlation with achievement in situations where it was used for skill practice. This study provides powerful empirical validation of the relationships between class organization, time, and achievement in physical education.

SKILL-RELATED TASK STRUCTURES, EXPLICITNESS, AND ACCOUNTABILITY: RELATIONSHIPS WITH STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT

The purpose of this study was to determine relationships of task structures, explicitness, and accountability with student achievement in physical education. The subjects were teachers of 10 physical education classes and their 202 students. Each class participated in instruction that was videotaped, and the students were pre- and posttested. Videotapes were coded to collect data on each skill-related task including the task presentation time, skill being taught, explicitness of the task presentation, primary and secondary accountability systems used, level of student participation, and total task time. Among the many results, for the volleyball forearm pass, significant relationships were found for the total number of tasks and time spent in tasks when expectations included outcome, situation, and criteria-product. For the volleyball underhand serve, significant relationships were found for the total number of tasks and time spent in tasks when accountability included teacher feedback with follow-up and monitoring of off-task behavior.

Rationales and practices used by caring physical education teachers

This paper examines the reasons that physical education teachers exhibited caring behaviors during teaching. Four physical education teachers, identified as caring physical education teachers, were formally and informally interviewed and observed teaching. Data were analyzed using content analysis and inductive coding, and three themes emerged. The teachers (a) share similar beliefs about why it is important to be caring and had similar influences on their teaching conduct, (b) similarly believe that physical activity/physical education makes a difference in the lives of youth, and (c) share a common interest in broadening relationships with students. The results suggest that there are common reasons these caring teachers care for their students—in particular, personal biography seems to be a strong influence—and that more studies are needed to examine further these results and the relationship between the concept of caring and teaching.

The validity of academic learning time-physical education (ALT-PE) as a process measure of achievement

The purpose of this study was to determine whether the ALT-PE system (Version 2) is valid as a process approach to estimate student achievement. Students (N = 60) were randomly selected from a data base that includes pretest and posttest scores for two volleyball skills and seven sessions of videotaped instruction. Videotapes were collected using two cameras with a split-screen generator so most instruction and practice could be seen. ALT-PE data were coded from the videotapes. In addition to normal ALT-PE coding conventions, coders recorded the skill that was the focus of instruction. Combinations of context and learner involvement categories were summed for each skill across the seven class sessions and to form other logical categories (e.g., total motor appropriate intervals). Achievement scores were calculated by posttest on pretest regression for each skill with the residual score used for subsequent analysis. Residual achievement scores were correlated with summed ALT-PE categories. The results indicate for the serve both total motor appropriate and practice-motor appropriate intervals were related to student achievement. For the pass, practice-motor appropriate intervals were related to achievement and the total motor appropriate-achievement correlation failed significance. These results demonstrate the validity of the ALT-PE system as a process measure of achievement can be partially substantiated.

Thinking long term: physical education's role in movement and mobility.

This paper addresses the role of physical education in promoting physical activity and mobility. It is assumed that attitude is an important component that influences physical activity and, ultimately, mobility. A variety of factors and the way they impact childrens attitudes toward physical education are discussed. In particular, the outcomes of physical education, motor skill development and student skill level, and student attitude are presented. The factors that influence student skill development and attitude are interrelated and occur over many years both in and out of school. I conclude that to promote physical activity, physical education must address attitude and be enjoyable.