Stephen Starin

Evolution and Behavior

On June 19, 1987, the United States Supreme Court, by a 7–2 vote, struck down as unconstitutional a Louisiana act requiring its teachers to devote equal time to “creation science” if they discussed evolution in their classes. This case, which was well publicized, is but one in a long series of legal battles over the teaching of evolution in public schools. Those battles are instructive in demonstrating the great reluctance with which scientific fact is accepted when it conflicts with traditional belief. And make no mistake about it, that evolution occurred is a fact. Consistent observations and inferences by the thousands indicate that, as Stephen Jay Gould (1987–1988) affirmed: The earth is billions of years old and its living creatures are linked by ties of evolutionary descent. Scientists stand accused of promoting dogma by so stating, but do we brand people illiberal when they proclaim that the earth is neither flat nor at the center of the universe. Science has taught us some things with confidence! Evolution on an ancient earth is as well established as our planet’s shape and position. Our continuing struggle to understand how evolution happens (the “theory of evolution”) does not cast our documentation of its occurrence—the “fact of evolution”—into doubt, (p. 186)

Rumination and vomiting in the developmentally disabled: A critical review of the behavioral, medical, and psychiatric treatment research

Medical and psychiatric research regarding the treatment of vomiting and rumination among developmentally disabled individuals was selectively reviewed. Because of serious methodological flaws which pervade the psychiatric literature, claims for the effectiveness of psychiatric interventions for vomiting and rumination cannot be justified. Medical interventions (e.g., pharmacological and surgical interventions) were found to be effective when rumination was attributable to a specific organic pathology. In the absence of identified organic pathology for rumination, medical interventions are of questionable efficacy and because of the risks and side effects associated with these procedures, are seldom the intervention of first choice for functional rumination. Behavioral procedures for the treatment of vomiting and rumination are described and critically reviewed for their efficacy, side effects, and the generalization and maintenance of their effects. Although methodological weaknesses limit conclusions regarding the efficacy of some behavioral interventions, several procedures have sound experimental support including oral hygiene, differential reinforcement of incompatible behaviors, and food satiation procedures. These behavioral interventions are the treatments of choice when organic causes of rumination cannot be identified. Suggestions for future research and applications are discussed.

Human Performance Under Sequences of Fixed-Ratio Schedules: Effects of Ratio Size and Magnitude of Reinforcement

In a discrete-trials procedure, adult humans chose between two sequential fixed-ratio (FR) schedules. Points, later exchangeable for money, were given for the completion of each FR. When each sequence produced two points for an equal number of responses overall, the value of the first FR in a sequence did not affect choice. When the values of the first FR in each sequence were equal, subjects preferred the alternative with the smaller second FR. Once a preference was established for the alternative with the smaller overall response requirement, two points were given for completing the second FR of the nonpreferred sequence. This sequence then provided three total points. Preference immediately shifted to the alternative requiring more responses overall (and per point) but offering more points.

Responding Under Homogeneous Versus Heterogeneous Chained Schedules

Four pigeons responded under chained variable-interval schedules in which the required response topographies were either similar (i.e., a homogeneous chain) or dissimilar (i.e., a heterogeneous chain). The pigeons were exposed to all possible combinations of initial-link key pecking or treadle pressing and terminal-link pecking or treadling. Three of four birds displayed higher initial-link response rates under the homogeneous chains. These results were explained in terms of an induction effect in which the strengthening effect of reinforcing a particular terminal-link response topography generalizes to similar responses earlier in the chain but not to topographically different responses.

Physiology and Behavior

As noted in Chapter 1, all behaviors have physiological correlates. Common sense suggests, and experimental evidence confirms, that “for every behavioral event, there is a corresponding physical event or series of physical events taking place within the body” (Schneider & Tarshis, 1975, p. 3). These events are the focus of study of many disciplines, known collectively as the behavioral neurosciences, a term that covers “any scientific endeavor designed to elucidate the function of the nervous system in the production of behavior” (Woodruff, 1984, p. 652).

Preference for Terminal-Link Key Pecking in Concurrent Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Chains

The response topographies required in the various components of chain schedules may be similar (homogeneous) or dissimilar (heterogeneous). Previous studies have shown initial-link responding to be increased under homogeneous chains compared to otherwise identical heterogeneous chains. Among the factors that have been proposed to account for this are induction, in which the effect of reinforcing a particular response topography generalizes to similar responses earlier in the chain, and the nature (e.g., effort) of the terminal-link topographies themselves. Prior investigations have used single-response procedures which preclude the empirical assessment of preference. The present study employed a concurrent-chains procedure and found increased response rates and time allocation to the alternative correlated with terminal-link pecking. This indicates that terminal-link pecking is preferred over terminal-link treadling and that response topography itself is a critical variable in determining initial-link performance when responses of different topographies are arranged in the terminal links. In addition, these data suggest that certain quantitative formulations of choice may be inadequate in predicting performance under concurrent schedules when topographically dissimilar responses are required.

Effects of mephenytoin and methsuximide on the reaction time of pigeons

Although antiepilepsy drugs are used clinically, their behavioral effects are poorly understood. The present study examined the effects of mephenytoin and methsuximide, two antiepilepsy medications, on the reaction times of pigeons. Pigeons were trained to depress and hold a foot treadle until a stimulus change occurred. Releases within 2 sec of the stimulus change were reinforced with access to mixed grain; premature releases or releases occurring after the 2-sec limited hold were not reinforced. Mephenytoin (40, 60, 80, 120, and 160 mg/kg) and methsuximide (25, 50, 75, and 100 mg/kg) produced generally dose-dependent increases in median reaction times and decreases in percent responses that were reinforced. The present procedure has not previously been used with pigeons and is a promising technique for the study of reaction time with this species.

Language, Consciousness, and Memory

This chapter provides a behavioral overview of language and of two language-related topics: consciousness and memory. Because these topics have been favorites of cognitive psychologists, a cognitive view of each is also briefly considered.

The Study of Behavior

This book obviously deals with psychology, but what is that? This chapter addresses the question and also summarizes the historical development of psychology as a discipline. Primary emphasis is placed on the development and defining characteristics of behaviorism, a unique approach to the study of behavior.

Applications of Behavioral Psychology

The field of psychology comprises many approaches to studying and explaining behavior, each with its own merits and shortcomings. One important characteristic of each approach is its usefulness in dealing with problems. Providing useful strategies for solving problems is one of the major strengths of behavioral psychology. The purpose of the present chapter is to give an overview of the practical applications of behavioral psychology. Several different applications are considered, but no attempt is made to review all of the research in a given area, or to consider the complex issues necessarily raised when psychologists attempt to solve behavioral problems.