Stephen Uhlhorn

Refractive index measurement of the isolated crystalline lens using optical coherence tomography

An optical coherence tomography system has been developed that was designed specifically for imaging the isolated crystalline lens. Cross-sectional OCT images were recorded on 40 lenses from 32 human donors with an age range of 6-82 years. A method has been developed to measure the axial thickness and average refractive index of the lens from a single recorded image. The measured average group refractive index at the measurement wavelength of 825 nm was converted to the average phase refractive index at 589 nm using lens dispersion data from the literature. The average refractive index for all lenses measured was 1.408+/-0.005 which agrees well with recent MRI measurements of the lens index gradient. A linear regression of the data resulted in a statistically significant decrease in the average refractive index with age, but a simple linear model was insufficient to explain the age dependence. The results presented here suggest that the peak refractive index in the nucleus is closer to 1.420, rather than the previously accepted value of 1.406.

Imaging and full-length biometry of the eye during accommodation using spectral domain OCT with an optical switch

Abstract: An optical switch was implemented in the reference arm of an extended depth SD-OCT system to sequentially acquire OCT images at different depths into the eye ranging from the cornea to the retina. A custom-made accommodation module was coupled with the delivery of the OCT system to provide controlled step stimuli of accommodation and disaccommodation that preserve ocular alignment. The changes in the lens shape were imaged and ocular distances were dynamically measured during accommodation and disaccommodation. The system is capable of dynamic in vivo imaging of the entire anterior segment and eye-length measurement during accommodation in real-time.

Distortions of the posterior surface in optical coherence tomography images of the isolated crystalline lens: effect of the lens index gradient

We quantify the posterior surface distortions in optical coherence tomography (OCT) images of isolated crystalline lenses. The posterior radius of curvature and asphericity obtained from OCT images acquired with the beam incident first on the anterior, and then the posterior, surface were compared. The results were compared with predictions of a ray-tracing model which includes the index gradient. The results show that the error in the radius of curvature is within the measurement reproducibility and that it can be corrected by assuming a uniform refractive index. However, accurate asphericity values require a correction algorithm that takes into account the gradient.

Intraoperative OCT of a Full-Thickness Macular Hole Before and After Internal Limiting Membrane Peeling

A child with a traumatic full-thickness macular hole was imaged perioperatively using spectral-domain optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT). Intraoperative imaging using a portable SD-OCT device equipped with a handheld probe demonstrated the full-thickness macular hole to be nearly completely closed following vitrectomy and internal limiting membrane peeling. Air was used as a tamponade agent and prone positioning was used postoperatively for 2 days. SD-OCT imaging confirmed closure of the full-thickness macular hole 5 days and 1 month postoperatively.

Postnatal Elongation of Eye Size in DBA/2J Mice Compared with C57BL/6J Mice: In Vivo Analysis with Whole-Eye OCT

PURPOSE To characterize postnatal changes in eye size in glaucomatous DBA/2J (D2) mice and in nonglaucomatous C57BL/6J mice (B6) in vivo by means of whole-eye optical coherence tomography (OCT). METHODS D2 (n = 32) and B6 (n = 36) mice were tested between 2 and 20 months of age in eight age bins. A custom time-domain OCT system with a center wavelength of 825 nm and an axial scan length of 7.1 mm produced axial A-scan interferograms at a rate of 20 A-lines/s with a resolution of 8 μm. Axial length (AL), corneal thickness (CT), anterior chamber depth (ACD), lens thickness (LT), vitreous chamber depth (VCD), and retinal thickness (RT) were measured in the optical axis and adjusted with corresponding refractive indices. Corneal curvature (CC) and IOP were also measured. RESULTS AL increased (P < 0.001) more in the D2 (21%) than in the B6 (9%) mice. There was an interaction effect (two-way ANOVA, P < 0.001) between age and strain for AL, CT, ACD, and VCD. In the D2 mice, the lens became dislocated posteriorly. Multiple regression analysis in the D2 mice revealed an independent effect of age and IOP (P ≤ 0.01) on axial length. CC steepened in the older D2 mice, whereas it flattened in the B6 mice. CONCLUSIONS In D2 mice, postnatal elongation of AL is larger than that in B6 mice and is associated with a greater increase in ACD and IOP, which seems to be a causal factor. The ease of use, short acquisition time, and noninvasiveness of whole-eye OCT make it suitable for routine use in longitudinal studies of mouse models.

Age-dependent variation of the Gradient Index profile in human crystalline lenses.

An investigation was carried out with the aim of reconstructing the gradient index (GRIN) profile of human crystalline lenses ex-vivo using optical coherence tomography (OCT) imaging with an optimization technique and to study the dependence of the GRIN profile with age. Cross-sectional images of nine isolated human crystalline lenses with ages ranging from 6 to 72 (post-mortem time 1 to 4 days) were obtained using a custom-made OCT system. Lenses were extracted from whole cadaver globes and placed in a measurement chamber filled with preservation medium (DMEM). Lenses were imaged with the anterior surface up and then flipped over and imaged again, to obtain posterior lens surface profiles both undistorted and distorted by the refraction through the anterior crystalline lens and GRIN. The GRIN distribution of the lens was described with three variables by means of power function, with variables being the nucleus and surface index, and a power coefficient that describes the decay of the refractive index from the nucleus to the surface. An optimization method was used to search for the parameters that produced the best match of the distorted posterior surface. The distorted surface was simulated with accuracy around the resolution of the OCT system (under 15 µm). The reconstructed refractive index values ranged from 1.356 to 1.388 for the surface, and from 1.396 to 1.434 for the nucleus. The power coefficient ranged between 3 and 18. The power coefficient increased significantly with age, at a rate of 0.24 per year. Optical coherence tomography allowed optical, non-invasive measurement of the 2D gradient index profile of the isolated human crystalline lens ex vivo. The age-dependent variation of the changes is consistent with previous data using magnetic resonance imaging, and the progressive formation of a refractive index plateau.

Contribution of the crystalline lens gradient refractive index to the accommodation amplitude in non-human primates: in vitro studies.

The purpose of this study was to determine the contribution of the gradient refractive index to the change in lens power in hamadryas baboon and cynomolgus monkey lenses during simulated accommodation in a lens stretcher. Thirty-six monkey lenses (1.4-14.1 years) and twenty-five baboon lenses (1.8-28.0 years) were stretched in discrete steps. At each stretching step, the lens back vertex power was measured and the lens cross-section was imaged with optical coherence tomography. The radii of curvature for the lens anterior and posterior surfaces were calculated for each step. The power of each lens surface was determined using refractive indices of 1.365 for the outer cortex and 1.336 for the aqueous. The gradient contribution was calculated by subtracting the power of the surfaces from the measured lens power. In all lenses, the contribution of the surfaces and gradient increased linearly with the amplitude of accommodation. The gradient contributes on average 65 ± 3% for monkeys and 66 ± 3% for baboons to the total power change during accommodation. When expressed in percent of the total power change, the relative contribution of the gradient remains constant with accommodation and age in both species. These findings are consistent with Gullstrands intracapsular theory of accommodation.

Distortion Correction of OCT Images of the Crystalline Lens: Gradient Index Approach

Purpose. To propose a method to correct optical coherence tomography (OCT) images of posterior surface of the crystalline lens incorporating its gradient index (GRIN) distribution and explore its possibilities for posterior surface shape reconstruction in comparison to existing methods of correction. Methods. Two-dimensional images of nine human lenses were obtained with a time-domain OCT system. The shape of the posterior lens surface was corrected using the proposed iterative correction method. The parameters defining the GRIN distribution used for the correction were taken from a previous publication. The results of correction were evaluated relative to the nominal surface shape (accessible in vitro) and compared with the performance of two other existing methods (simple division, refraction correction: assuming a homogeneous index). Comparisons were made in terms of posterior surface radius, conic constant, root mean square, peak to valley, and lens thickness shifts from the nominal data. Results. Differences in the retrieved radius and conic constant were not statistically significant across methods. However, GRIN distortion correction with optimal shape GRIN parameters provided more accurate estimates of the posterior lens surface in terms of root mean square and peak values, with errors <6 and 13 &mgr;m, respectively, on average. Thickness was also more accurately estimated with the new method, with a mean discrepancy of 8 &mgr;m. Conclusions. The posterior surface of the crystalline lens and lens thickness can be accurately reconstructed from OCT images, with the accuracy improving with an accurate model of the GRIN distribution. The algorithm can be used to improve quantitative knowledge of the crystalline lens from OCT imaging in vivo. Although the improvements over other methods are modest in two dimension, it is expected that three-dimensional imaging will fully exploit the potential of the technique. The method will also benefit from increasing experimental data of GRIN distribution in the lens of larger populations.

Corneal group refractive index measurement using low-coherence interferometry

Purpose: The goal of the study is to measure the group refractive index of the human cornea in vitro to improve the accuracy of corneal thickness measurements. Methods: Corneal buttons were trephined from 23 human cadaver eyes and the group refractive index of the cornea was measured at lambda equals 840 nm using a low-coherence Michelson interferometer and the technique proposed by Sorin and Gray (Phot. Tech. Lett. 4:105 - 107, 1992). The effect of dehydration on the measurement was studied by measuring the corneal optical thickness as a function of time. Results: Preliminary measurements of the group refractive index at 840 nm gave ng equals 1.450 plus or minus 0.024 for the human cornea, which is much higher than a calculated group refractive index of ng equals 1.387. Because of dehydration, the optical thickness of the cornea decreased at a rate of 5.5 micrometer/minute which led to an artificially high value for the group refractive index. Conclusion: The calculated group refractive index of ng equals 1.387 appears to be an accurate value for the purpose of corneal thickness measurements using low-coherence interferometry, and corneal group refractive index measurements can be performed in vitro if the measurements are performed rapidly to avoid the effect of dehydration.

Semiautomated analysis of optical coherence tomography crystalline lens images under simulated accommodation

Presbyopia is an age related, gradual loss of accommodation, mainly due to changes in the crystalline lens. As part of research efforts to understand and cure this condition, ex vivo, cross-sectional optical coherence tomography images of crystalline lenses were obtained by using the Ex-Vivo Accommodation Simulator (EVAS II) instrument and analyzed to extract their physical and optical properties. Various filters and edge detection methods were applied to isolate the edge contour. An ellipse is fitted to the lens outline to obtain central reference point for transforming the pixel data into the analysis coordinate system. This allows for the fitting of a high order equation to obtain a mathematical description of the edge contour, which obeys constraints of continuity as well as zero to infinite surface slopes from apex to equator. Geometrical parameters of the lens were determined for the lens images captured at different accommodative states. Various curve fitting functions were developed to mathematically describe the anterior and posterior surfaces of the lens. Their differences were evaluated and their suitability for extracting optical performance of the lens was assessed. The robustness of these algorithms was tested by analyzing the same images repeated times.