Steve G Burrow

Tuning a resonant energy harvester using a generalized electrical load

A fundamental drawback of vibration-based energy harvesters is that they typically feature a resonant mass/spring mechanical system to amplify the small source vibrations; the limited bandwidth of the mechanical amplifier restricts the effectiveness of the energy harvester considerably. By extending the range of input frequencies over which a vibration energy harvester can generate useful power, e.g. through adaptive tuning, it is not only possible to open up a wider range of applications, such as those where the source frequency changes over time, but also possible to relax the requirements for precision manufacture or the need for mechanical adjustment in situ. In this paper, a vibration-based energy harvester connected to a generalized electrical load (containing both real and reactive impedance) is presented. It is demonstrated that the reactive component of the electrical load can be used to tune the harvester system to significantly increase the output power away from the resonant peak of the device. An analytical model of the system is developed, which includes non-ideal components arising from the physical implementation, and the results are confirmed by experiment. The − 3 dB (half-power) bandwidth of the prototype energy harvester is shown to be over three times greater when presented with an optimized load impedance compared to that for the same harvester presented with an optimized resistive only load.

Electrical generation and distribution for the more electric aircraft

The aircraft industry is developing the more electric aircraft (MEA) with an ultimate goal of distributing only electrical power across the airframe. The replacement of existing systems with electric equivalents has, and will continue to, significantly increase the electrical power requirement. This has created a need for the enhancement of generation capacity and changes to distribution systems. The higher powers will push distribution voltages higher in order to limit conduction losses and reduce cable size, and hence weight. A power electronic interface may be required to regulate generator output into the distributed power form.

Vibration energy harvesters with non-linear compliance

Vibration powered electrical generators typically feature a mass/spring resonant system to amplify small background vibrations. The compliance element in these resonant systems can become non-linear as a result of manufacturing limitations, physical operating constraints, or by deliberate design. The characteristics of mass/spring resonant systems with non-linear compliance elements are well known but they have not been widely applied within the field of energy harvesting. In this paper analysis of non-linear system behaviour using the harmonic balance method is presented, giving an insight into the potential benefits of non-linearities in energy harvesting applications. The design of a vibration powered energy harvester is reviewed and it is shown how the deliberate incorporation of non-linear behaviour within a design can be beneficial in improving magnetic loading and also in extending the range of frequencies over which the device can generate useful power.

A Resonant Generator with Non-Linear Compliance for Energy Harvesting in High Vibrational Environments

This paper considers a resonant generator (RG) powered by ambient vibrations, in an environment where the level of vibration is significant. The target application of the RG is to provide power for wireless sensor nodes performing structural health monitoring. The RG is of moving magnet design and optimisation of the magnetic circuit to maximise power density has resulted in a RG with significant reluctance forces. These reluctance forces sum with the mechanical compliance to produce an overall non-linear compliance response, as a result the resonant behavior of the RG differs considerably from a simple second-order model. The approach taken to design has been experimental in nature. Results of a simulated RG are presented along with the realisation and testing of a prototype RG.

Tuning the Resonant Frequency and Damping of an Electromagnetic Energy Harvester Using Power Electronics

In order to maximize power density, the resonant frequency of an energy harvester should be equal to the source excitation frequency and the electrical damping set equal to the parasitic damping. These parameters should be adjustable during device operation because the excitation characteristics can change. This brief presents, for the first time, a power electronic interface that is capable of continual adjustment of the damping and the resonant frequency of an energy harvester by controlling real and reactive power exchange between the electrical and mechanical domains while storing the harvested energy in a battery. The advantages of this technique over previously proposed methods are the precise control over the tuning parameters of the electrical system and integrated rectification within the tuning interface. Experimental results verify the operation, and the prototype system presented can change the resonant frequency of the electromechanical system by ±10% and increase the damping by 45%. As the input excitation frequency was swept away from the unmodified resonant frequency of the harvester, the use of the tuning mechanism was shown to increase real power generation by up to 25%. The prototype harvester is capable of generating 100 mW at an excitation frequency of 1.25 Hz.

Optimum resistive loads for vibration-based electromagnetic energy harvesters with a stiffening nonlinearity

The exploitation of nonlinear behavior in vibration-based energy harvesters has received much attention over the last decade. One key motivation is that the presence of nonlinearities can potentially increase the bandwidth over which the excitation is amplified and therefore the efficiency of the device. In the literature, references to resonating energy harvesters featuring nonlinear oscillators are common. In the majority of the reported studies, the harvester powers purely resistive loads. Given the complex behavior of nonlinear energy harvesters, it is difficult to identify the optimum load for this kind of device. In this paper the aim is to find the optimal load for a nonlinear energy harvester in the case of purely resistive loads. This work considers the analysis of a nonlinear energy harvester with hardening compliance and electromagnetic transduction under the assumption of negligible inductance. It also introduces a methodology based on numerical continuation which can be used to find the optimum load for a fixed sinusoidal excitation.

Modelling and experimental characterization of an energy harvester with bi-stable compliance characteristics

This paper presents a novel design for a vibrational energy harvester. The design uses high permeability magnetic materials which brings about two key advantages. First, it gives strong coupling between the mechanical and electrical domains, thus enabling effective energy conversion. Second, it gives the device a bi-stable compliance characteristic, which gives the harvester a broad-band frequency response. An explicit analytical model is developed using a combination of experimental data and finite element modelling in order to accurately incorporate the magnetic forces. The model is then validated using dynamic tests of the experimental rig. The main features of the dynamic response of the bi-stable oscillator are highlighted and benefits discussed in the context of energy harvesting. Finally, comments are made on the relationship between the complicated behaviour resulting from the bi-stable compliance characteristic and the benefits of increased electrical coupling.

Efficiency of low power audio amplifiers and loudspeakers

This paper looks at the load presented to audio amplifiers by real transducers. We consider the power losses in class-AB and class-D amplifier topologies, and determine that in order to predict the efficiency it is necessary to consider the amplifier/transducer combination. The ability of the class-D amplifier to recycle quadrature load current offers new ways to improve the efficiency.

Sensorless Operation of a Permanent-Magnet Generator for Aircraft

This paper considers the operation and control of a brushless AC prototype embedded aircraft generator that has been designed for use as an alternative to the emergency run air turbine. To meet the wide operating speed requirements, the generator utilizes a hybrid rotor construction comprising permanent magnet and variable reluctance sections. The constant current source characteristics of the design are exploited to derive the phase information required by the AC vector controller, thus avoiding the use of a shaft-mounted rotor position sensor. The methodology behind the controller operation is presented together with test results taken from a prototype generator system, and this is contrast with the results taken from the conventionally controlled machine with resolver position feedback.

Power Conditioning for Energy Harvesting

Vibration powered electrical generators produce a raw AC electrical output that often needs to be converted into DC for use by the load systems. There are many possible ways to achieve this conversion (rectification) however the specific application of vibration energy harvesting requires a solution that is a delicate balance between efficiency, converter quiescent loss and impact upon the resonant generator operation. In this paper we investigate how vibration powered generators interact with typical rectification schemes and assess the overall system performance, comparing it to the theoretical maximum power that could be generated. Further to this we present practical circuits that address the inherent problems of passive rectification techniques including a unity power factor power converter, realised at ultra low powers, suitable for energy harvesting applications. Numerical models are validated with measured results.