Steve Rothberg

Laser vibrometry: pseudo-vibrations

The application of Laser Doppler Velocimetry (LDV) to the measurement of normal-to-surface vibration of a solid surface is now established as a technique complementary to the use of an accelerometer. Several practical systems have been developed and a number are now commercially available. Each velocirneter relies on the same principle of operation, namely the detection of a Doppler shift, fD, in the light scattered from a vibrating target. Fig. 1 shows a typical vibrometer arrangement. Since the photodetector cannot respond quickly enough to detect the light frequency directly, scattered light from the vibrating surface is mixed with a reference beam and heterodyned on the detector surface. In addition, in order to resolve the sign of the vibration velocity, it is necessary to pre-shift the reference beam by a known amount, fR, resulting in an optical beat at the detector of frequency (fR ± fD). An appropriate Doppler signal processor then demodulates the detector signal to produce a time-resolved analogue of the target vibration velocity (in the direction of the incident beam). Systems differ in the method adopted to produce the reference beam frequency shift. Bragg cells [1], diffraction gratings [2] rotating scattering discs [3] and frequency modulation of the laser beam itself [4] have all been used successfully... (continues).

Numerical simulation of speckle noise in laser vibrometry

The fundamental mechanism by which speckle noise is generated in laser vibrometry before describing a new numerical simulation for prediction of speckle noise level in a real measurement is considered. Factors within the simulation include rate of change of phase within individual speckle transitions, low-pass filtering to match the frequency range of experimental data with which comparison is to be made, a track-and-hold facility for periods of low signal amplitude, and wavefront curvature effects. The simulation data provide real insight into the phase and amplitude modulation of the Doppler signal, and good agreement is found in the final comparison with experimental data from a measurement on a rotating target.

Evaluation of thin, flexible sensors for time-resolved grip force measurement

Abstract Three types of thin, flexible force sensor were studied under a variety of loading conditions to determine their suitability for measuring grip force. Static accuracy, hysteresis, repeatability, and drift errors were established, the effects of shear force and surface curvature were considered, and dynamic accuracy and drift were measured. Novel tests were developed to consider dynamic accuracy and sensitivity to shear loadings. Additionally, three sensors were evaluated in a real-life gripping scenario, measuring grip force during a golf shot. Comments are made on sensor performance, ease of use, and durability.

Human perceptions of sports equipment under playing conditions

Assessment of the ‘performance’ of sports equipment is generally derived from physical and technical parameters, such as power, speed, distance and accuracy. However, from a psychological perspective, players need to feel comfortable with their equipment and confident in its properties. These factors can only be measured through the subjective assessment of individual perceptions. Focusing on a group of elite golfers, this study presents a formalized approach for eliciting and structuring players’ descriptions of their perception of sports equipment. Qualitative methods of inquiry were used to generate perceptions from a group of professional golfers ( n = 15) during play testing. The equipment characteristics of significance to the golfers emerged from an inductive analysis of their responses. However, although this method of representation of the results helped to identify the key components or dimensions of a players subjective perception, it was unable to determine potential relationships between the dimensions. With this in mind, a new technique, called structured relationship modelling’, was developed. Ten general dimensions emerged from the analysis, of which three are presented here together with a section of the relationship model. The results demonstrate the effectiveness of qualitative techniques for eliciting human perceptions and of structured relationship models for representation of the associations found.

Vibration Measurements on Rotating Machinery Using Laser Doppler Velocimetry

This paper explores the use of laser vibrometry for vibration measurement directly from a rotating component. The presence of a surface velocity component due to the rotation itself is shown to create a strong measurement dependency on vibration perpendicular to the intended measurement direction. Particular ambiguity results at synchronous frequencies. A mathematical means to resolve the genuine vibration components from two simultaneous laser vibrometer measurements is presented and shown to be effective in the study of nonsynchronous rotor vibrations.

Laser vibrometry meets laser speckle

This paper begins with a review of the fundamental mechanism by which speckle noise is generated in Laser Vibrometry before describing a new numerical simulation of speckle behavior for prediction of noise level in a real measurement. The simulation data provides real insight into the phase and amplitude modulation of the Doppler signal as a result of speckle changes. The paper also includes experimental data looking at the influence of speckle noise in measurements on rotors with a selection of surface treatments and in scanning and tracking configurations.

Multi-physics analysis of valve train systems: From system level to microscale interactions

Abstract The paper highlights a holistic, integrated, and multi-disciplinary approach to design analysis of valve train systems, referred to as multi-physics. The analysis comprises various forms of physical phenomena and their interactions, including large displacement inertial dynamics, small amplitude oscillations due to system compliances, tribology, contact mechanics, and durability at the cam-tappet contact. Therefore, it also represents a multi-scale investigation, where the phenomena can be investigated at system level and referred back to underlying causes at subsystem or component level, in other words, implications of an event at microcosm can be ascertained on the overall system performance. This approach is often referred to in industry as down-cascading and up-cascading. The particular case reported here to outline the merits of this approach concerns a four-stroke single-cylinder engine. This promotes a system approach to engineering analysis for integrated noise, vibration, and harshness, durability and frictional assessment (efficiency). Experimental validation is provided with a motored test rig, using laser doppler vibrometry.

Measurement and analysis of grip force during a golf shot

In this study, grip force was measured during a standard golf tee shot using two different measurement techniques. The first utilized a matrix-type thin-film sensor applied to a golf grip, from which total grip force could be readily determined. The second method involved 31 individual thin-film force sensors strategically placed on two golf gloves, allowing the force output of specific regions of the hands to be measured. Twenty golfers of varying ability participated in each test. The discovery of a unique grip force ‘signature’ for each golfer emerged from these data. That is, each golfer had a very repeatable total grip force trace, but these traces varied considerably between golfers. High-speed video was also recorded for many of the golfers tested so that key phases in the swing could be identified on the force traces.

Speckle noise reduction in laser vibrometry: experimental and numerical optimisation

The range of potential applications of the Laser Doppler Vibrometer is significantly influenced by the behavior of the speckle pattern that is incident on the instruments photodetector. A speckle pattern is formed when coherent laser light is scattered from an optically rough target. This paper investigates experimentally how photodetector size and position relative to the target can lead to noise floor reduction in the instruments output. An optimum detector position is specified for the rotating target condition considered. The experimental results are compared with theoretical results in order for the predictive of further noise reduction to be made. For reliable operation and increased reduction it is essential to minimize the speckle noise contribution to the Laser Vibrometer output.

Experimental analysis of impacts with large elastic deformation: I. Linear motion

A measurement system is presented which uses a small number of sensors to capture relevant information by a limited number of measurements during a high-speed impact between two lightweight bodies. Two laser Doppler vibrometers and a piezoelectric accelerometer are arranged to capture data from which the variation of deformations, velocities and forces over time during an impact can be determined. The golf club - ball impact is chosen as an example. Large elastic deformations are measured on the golf ball during the impact and these can be related to the variation of the impact force over time. This information leads to greater understanding of the relationship between two impacting bodies and can be used in the validation of analysis by techniques such as finite element modelling.