Steven Booth‐Butterfield

Individual differences in the communication of humorous messages

This report develops an individual differences approach to the encoding of humor, provides a scale to measure it, and offers four empirical studies in support of the conceptualization. Results indicate that individual differences in the predisposition to enact humorous messages can be reliably measured via the Humor Orientation Scale. Variation in humorous orientation is related to the number of situations in which the person will or will not attempt humor, the number of different types of humor behavior encoded, the level of detail used to describe humorous episodes, and amount of planning prior to enactment of humor, a predispositon both stable and consistant across time.

The Impact of Communication Apprehension on College Student Retention and Success.

Communication apprehension is conceptualized as a causal agent in student success. It is implicated in both academic and interpersonal success, two factors identified by prior resesarch as primary predictors of persistence. A four year longitudinal study of the impact of communication apprehension on grade point average and persistence at the university level was conducted. Results indicated high CA students were significantly more likely to drop out and attain lower grade point averages compared to low CA students. The impact of CA was strongest during the first two years. A replication of the study confirmed the impact of CA on student persistence. It is concluded the impact of CA on the probablity of high CA students’ survival in college is substantial and this impact adds to the case favoring the provision of training programs to assist such students overcome their apprehension about communication.

The communication anxiety inventory: Validation of state‐and context‐communication apprehension

Research reported in this paper investigates the reconceptualization (McCroskey, 1984) of communication apprehension (CA), focusing on the relationship between context‐CA and state‐CA. The validity of the reconceptualization can be enhanced by demonstrating that state‐CA (level of fear and anxiety) is systematically related to context‐CA (predisposition). Two research studies using a new operational measures of state‐CA and context‐CA, the Communication Anxiety Inventory, offer empirical support for the relationship between context‐CA and state‐CA. Results show that context‐CA explains a minimum of 50% of the state‐CA variance. Conclusions suggest that level of fear or anxiety varies closely with context‐CA and that the new scales have strong predictive validity.

The Funny People: A Source-Orientation to the Communication of Humor.

Research investigated the production of humor and correlates with the communicator trait of Humor Orientation (HO; Booth‐Butterfield & Booth‐Butterfield, 1991). In Phase One, 161 university students completed four self report scales. Humor Orientation was positively correlated with communication traits of communicator adaptability, concern for eliciting positive impressions, affective orientation, and situational sense of humor. To compare differences in humor production, 57 students from Phase One were recruited on the basis of HO scores. High (N=29) and low (N=28) HOs delivered 3 jokes. High HOs were perceived to be funnier than low HOs both by participant‐observers and by independent coders who listened to audiotapes. However, participant‐observers rated messages significantly funnier than those who only listened to tapes.

Inhibition and student regall of instructional messages

This research investigated the effect of trait CA and anticipated interaction on student recall of instructional messages. It was hypothesized anticipated interaction would elicit higher levels of state anxiety in students with high CA which would inhibit their free recall of a lecture. Undergraduate students were tested for their level of trait CA three weeks prior to the main study. They were randomly assigned to either a control (lecture) or experimental (lecture and anticipated interaction) condition. Both groups completed a self report scale of state anxiety and listed their free recall of the lecture. Results supported the hypotheses. High CA students reported greater anxiety and lower recall as predicted. On average, the high CA experimental group showed a decline of 20% in correct recall compared to the high CA control group.

Instructional interventions for reducing situational anxiety and avoidance

Instructors can manipulate situational variables to help reduce situational anxiety and avoidance in their students. Research reported here tests variations in motivation (percent of grade for communication activity), acquaintance (communication partner as friend or stranger), and context of assignment for their effect on dispositional anxiety and avoidance. Each factor was varied in a cover story which students read and then responded to with a report of their likely anxiety and avoidance behavior. Results indicate that context strongly influences anxiety and avoidance, that motivation reduces reported anxiety for low and high CA students in public assignments, and that acquaintance influences low CA, but not high CA students.

The mediating role of cognition in the experience of state anxiety

Two studies investigated the inter‐relationship of cognitions, state anxiety, and predispositional apprehension during public presentations. Using both free‐recall format and standard measures, participants were asked to describe the thoughts and feelings they experienced while presenting two graded classroom speeches and an impromptu speech. Results indicated that the categories of thoughts were highly consistent across speeches and situations, with negative thoughts predominating among more anxious speakers. State anxiety and types of thoughts were correlated with each other and with trait anxiety. However neither was solely a function of the trait which did not significantly impact the relationship of the two processes.

The function of uncertainty reduction in alleviating primary tension in small groups

Two studies manipulated levels of uncertainty and employed self report, observer‐ratings, and behavioral coding to assess primary tension in groups. Results indicate that a) participants cannot differentiate levels of primary tension in groups, b) observers can reliably detect differences in primary tension behaviors, and c) these tense group behaviors decrease as uncertainty is effectively reduced.

A meta‐analysis of the cross‐situational consistency of communication apprehension

Parks’ (1980) criticism of the cross‐situational consistency of communication apprehension produced several studies that replicated the measures and procedures, hut found different results. A meta‐analysis of 17 studies was conducted to determine what conclusions are warranted given the available data. The meta‐analysis disclosed a large effect (combined z = 17.48, p < .0001) for cross‐situational consistency. The average r between trait‐CA and state/situational anxiety was .473. Further analysis of the “file drawer problem” showed that over 96 non‐significant tests must be unpublished in various file drawers to reduce the combined z to statistical non‐significance. Thus, the meta‐analysis warrants a strong claim for the cross‐situational consistency of communication apprehension

The Affective Orientation to Communication: Conceptual and Empirical Distinctions.

Affectively oriented (AO) individuals are people who are aware of their emotional states, value that information, and use it to guide social interaction. Although this concept sounds similar to others related to self‐awareness, emotionality, and patterns of information seeking, the process is both conceptually and empirically unique. Study One compared individuals on AO and several measures which share underlying dimensions: affect intensity, self‐consciousness, extroversion, neuroticism, monitoring vs. blunting behavior style, and beliefs about romance. Affective orientation was moderately related to affect intensity and private self‐consciousness, and exhibited small correlations with monitoring of information‐seeking, extroversion, and idealism of romantic beliefs. Study Two assessed the stability of AO responses. Across a 4‐week time period AO remained highly consistent and thus did not appear to be a function of feelings at the time.