Steven H. Bailey

Validation of the Caprini Risk Assessment Model in Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery Patients

BACKGROUND The Venous Thromboembolism Prevention Study (VTEPS) Network is a consortium of 5 tertiary referral centers established to examine venous thromboembolism (VTE) in plastic surgery patients. We report our midterm analyses of the studys control group to evaluate the incidence of VTE in patients who receive no chemoprophylaxis, and validate the Caprini Risk Assessment Model (RAM) in plastic surgery patients. STUDY DESIGN Medical record review was performed at VTEPS centers for all eligible plastic surgery patients between March 2006 and June 2009. Inclusion criteria were Caprini score ≥3, surgery under general anesthesia, and postoperative hospital admission. Patients who received chemoprophylaxis were excluded. Dependent variables included symptomatic deep vein thrombosis (DVT) or pulmonary embolism (PE) within the first 60 postoperative days and time to DVT or PE. RESULTS We identified 1,126 historic control patients. The overall VTE incidence was 1.69%. Approximately 1 in 9 (11.3%) patients with Caprini score >8 had a VTE event. Patients with Caprini score >8 were significantly more likely to develop VTE when compared with patients with Caprini score of 3 to 4 (odds ratio [OR] 20.9, p < 0.001), 5 to 6 (OR 9.9, p < 0.001), or 7 to 8 (OR 4.6, p = 0.015). Among patients with Caprini score 7 to 8 or Caprini score >8, VTE risk was not limited to the immediate postoperative period (postoperative days 1-14). In these high-risk patients, more than 50% of VTE events were diagnosed in the late (days 15-60) postoperative period. CONCLUSIONS The Caprini RAM effectively risk-stratifies plastic and reconstructive surgery patients for VTE risk. Among patients with Caprini score >8, 11.3% have a postoperative VTE when chemoprophylaxis is not provided. In higher risk patients, there was no evidence that VTE risk is limited to the immediate postoperative period.

Postoperative enoxaparin prevents symptomatic venous thromboembolism in high-risk plastic surgery patients.

Background: Venous thromboembolism is a major patient safety issue. The Plastic Surgery Foundation–sponsored Venous Thromboembolism Prevention Study examined whether postoperative enoxaparin prevents symptomatic venous thromboembolism in adult plastic surgery patients. Methods: In 2009, four sites uniformly adopted a clinical protocol. Patients with a Caprini score of 3 or higher received postoperative enoxaparin prophylaxis for the duration of inpatient stay. Venous Thromboembolism Prevention Study historical control patients had an operation between 2006 and 2008 but received no chemoprophylaxis for 60 days after surgery. The primary study outcome was symptomatic 60-day venous thromboembolism. Results: Three thousand three hundred thirty-four patients (1876 controls and 1458 enoxaparin patients) were included. Notable risk reduction was present in patients with a Caprini score greater than 8 (8.54 percent versus 4.07 percent; p = 0.182) and a Caprini score of 7 to 8 (2.55 percent versus 1.15 percent; p = 0.230) who received postoperative enoxaparin. Logistic regression was limited to highest risk patients (Caprini score ≥7) and demonstrated that length of stay greater than or equal to 4 days (adjusted odds ratio, 4.63; p = 0.007) and Caprini score greater than 8 (odds ratio, 2.71; p = 0.027) were independent predictors of venous thromboembolism. When controlling for length of stay and Caprini score, receipt of postoperative enoxaparin was protective against venous thromboembolism (odds ratio, 0.39; p = 0.042). Conclusions: In high-risk plastic surgery patients, postoperative enoxaparin prophylaxis is protective against 60-day venous thromboembolism when controlling for baseline risk and length of stay. Hospitalization for 4 or more days is an independent risk factor for venous thromboembolism. CLINICAL QUESTION/LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Therapeutic, III.

Etiology, prevention, and treatment of dermal filler complications.

The availability of dermal fillers for multiple cosmetic indications has led to a dramatic increase in their application. Although fillers are generally regarded as safe tools for soft tissue augmentation, complications can occur. Therefore, to describe and review the complications associated with the currently-available dermal filling agents, the authors conducted a literature review in peer-reviewed journals and present the reported complication rates. They also describe current strategies to avoid, diagnose, and manage complications if they do occur.

The single dominant medial row perforator DIEP flap in breast reconstruction: three-dimensional perforasome and clinical results.

Background: Successful outcomes with the deep inferior epigastric artery perforator (DIEP) flap are heavily dependent on identifying the largest perforators. The purpose of this study was to describe the vascular anatomy (location, size, zones of perfusion, and variations) of the single most dominant deep inferior epigastric artery perforator and to report a clinical series based on this flap. Methods: Eleven abdominal flaps were harvested from fresh adult cadavers, and measurements were combined with clinical measurements from 16 patients. Details such as perforator size, location, type, and zones of perfusion were documented for all flaps and clinical outcomes for all patients. Results: A total of 36 flaps were dissected with an average perforator location within a 3-cm radius of the umbilicus and an average perforator size greater than 1.8 mm. Computed tomographic scans of the cadaver abdominal flaps demonstrated consistent perfusion in zones I and II and half of zones III and IV. Clinical results showed partial flap necrosis in one patient and fat necrosis of less than 5 percent in three patients, all of which occurred in the distal portion of zone III. The deep inferior epigastric artery medial row perforators near the umbilicus were found to be the largest perforators in the entire deep inferior epigastric artery system and abdomen. Conclusions: The single dominant medial row perforator has a maximal vascularity in zones I and II, and less in zones III an IV. The authors recommend that half of zone III and all of zone IV be discarded to avoid the risks of partial flap loss and fat necrosis.

The effect of postoperative enoxaparin on risk for reoperative hematoma.

Background: The risk of postoperative bleeding is the chief concern expressed by plastic surgeons who do not use pharmacologic prophylaxis against venous thromboembolism. The Plastic Surgery Foundation–funded Venous Thromboembolism Prevention Study examined whether receipt of postoperative enoxaparin prophylaxis changed 60-day reoperative hematoma rates. Methods: In 2009, the studys network sites uniformly adopted a “best practice” clinical protocol to provide postoperative enoxaparin to adult plastic surgery patients at risk for perioperative venous thromboembolism. Historical control patients (2006 to 2008) received no chemoprophylaxis for 60 days after surgery. Retrospective chart review identified demographic and surgery-specific risk factors that potentially contributed to bleeding risk. The primary study outcome was 60-day reoperative hematoma. Stratified analyses examined reoperative hematoma in the overall population and among high-risk patients. Multivariable logistic regression controlled for identified confounders. Results: Complete data were available for 3681 patients (2114 controls and 1567 enoxaparin patients). Overall, postoperative enoxaparin did not change the reoperative hematoma rate when compared with controls (3.38 percent versus 2.65 percent, p = 0.169). Similar results were seen in subgroup analyses for breast reconstruction (5.25 percent versus 4.21 percent, p = 0.737), breast reduction (7.04 percent versus 8.29 percent, p = 0.194), and nonbreast plastic surgery (2.20 percent versus 1.46 percent, p = 0.465). In the regression model, independent predictors of reoperative hematoma included breast surgery, microsurgical procedure, and post–bariatric surgery body contouring. Receipt of postoperative enoxaparin was not an independent predictor (odds ratio, 1.16; 95 percent CI, 0.77 to 1.76). Conclusion: Postoperative enoxaparin does not produce a clinically relevant or statistically significant increase in observed rates of reoperative hematoma. CLINICAL QUESTION/LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Risk: II

Three- and Four-Dimensional Arterial and Venous Perforasomes of the Internal Mammary Artery Perforator Flap

Background: The internal mammary artery perforator flap has been used in head and neck reconstruction. Although anatomical and perfusion studies with ink have been performed previously, the authors now use three- and four-dimensional computed tomographic angiography to precisely visualize vascular anatomy of individual perforators (perforasomes) and the axiality of perfusion. Methods: Eleven hemichest adipocutaneous flaps were dissected from cadavers. Measurements were recorded, such as the distance of each internal mammary artery perforator from the sternal edge, diameter of vessels, and number and location of internal mammary artery perforators per hemichest. Single internal mammary artery perforator injections with Isovue contrast were carried out, and the flaps were subjected to dynamic computed tomographic scanning. Static computed tomographic scanning was also undertaken using a barium-gelatin mixture. Images were viewed using both General Electric and TeraRecon systems, allowing the appreciation of vascular territory (three-dimensional), and analysis of perfusion flow (four-dimensional). Results: Each hemichest flap had one to three internal mammary artery perforators, most commonly in intercostal spaces 1, 2, and 3. Twenty-six internal mammary artery perforators were dissected, and 19 perforator arteries and six perforator veins were injected with contrast. The internal mammary artery perforator in the second intercostal space had the largest mean diameter and a large vascular territory. Linking vessels, both direct and indirect, communicate between perforators and can enlarge perforasomes. Linking vessels were also found between internal mammary artery perforators and the lateral thoracic artery. Conclusions: Three- and four-dimensional computed tomographic angiography allows detailed analysis of vascular anatomy. Important information such as internal mammary artery perforator flap dimensions, linking vessels, and axiality of perfusion is elucidated, thus contributing to a better understanding of perforator flaps.

Thoracodorsal artery perforator flap and Latissimus dorsi myocutaneous flap – anatomical study of the constant skin paddle perforator locations

BACKGROUND Ischaemic flap complications can be a problem following harvest of the latissimus dorsi (LD) musculocutaneous flap or thoracodorsal artery perforator (TAP) flap. We investigate the reliable locations of the perforators of the thoracodorsal artery. METHODS Twenty latissimus dorsi flaps harvested from cadavers were used in the study. In fifteen flaps the thoracodorsal artery was injected with coloured latex, and the locations of perforators were recorded. In five flaps perfusion of the skin paddle was evaluated using 3D CT angiography following injection of the thoracodorsal artery with a barium sulphate/gelatin mixture. RESULTS At least one perforator originating from the descending branch of the thoracodorsal artery was found in all specimens, whereas no perforators from the transverse branch were found in 33% of flaps. At least one perforator originating from the descending branch in all flaps was found between 9.5 and 15.4 cm from the posterior axillary fold, within 4.3 cm of the lateral border of the latissimus muscle. 58% of all perforators from the descending branch, and 39% of all perforators from the thoracodorsal artery were found in this region. CT scanning of the hemiback flaps demonstrated contrast in the superior two-thirds. Perfusion of the skin paddles in three locations was demonstrated- superior transverse (bra strap), vertical and lower transverse. CONCLUSIONS Thoracodorsal artery perforators could be found within a reliable region. Positioning of the TAP flap skin paddle over this region will maximise the chances of including a perforator and may reduce the risk of ischaemia. For a musculocutaneous LD flap, the skin paddle can be in any of the 3 popular locations, i.e. upper transverse, vertical and lower transverse, as they were shown to be well vascularised.

Latissimus dorsi donor-site morbidity: the combination of quilting and fibrin sealant reduce length of drain placement and seroma rate.

AbstractSeroma formation has been shown to be a multifactorial process in part due to dead space and the formation of raw surfaces, which produce large quantities of serous exudate. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the effect of quilting/progressive tension sutures (to reduce dead space) and fibrin sealant (to seal the raw surface) in combination on the seroma rate and length of drain placement in patients undergoing latissimus dorsi breast reconstruction. A retrospective review of 43 patients undergoing latissimus dorsi flap breast reconstruction was performed. The patients were divided into 2 groups: quilting sutures alone versus those with quilting sutures and fibrin sealant. Data regarding age, body mass index, smoking history, timing of reconstruction, type of breast surgery, radiation history, complications, length of drain placement, use of fibrin glue, and use of quilting/progressive tension sutures were collected for each patient. Results were analyzed statistically using unpaired t tests (P < 0.05). The quilting group included 19 patients with 24 donor sites. The mean drain placement duration was 21.5 days (range, 9–69 days). One patient in 19 developed a seroma, which was treated and resolved with aspiration. The seroma rate for the quilting only group was 5%. The quilting and sealant group included 23 patients with 26 donor sites. The quilting and sealant group had a mean duration of drain placement of 13.9 days (range, 6–38 days). This was a statistically reduced length of drainage (P = 0.04) compared with quilting only. The quilting and sealant group had 1 patient in 23 develop a seroma with a rate of 4% which compared with quilting only was not statistically significant (P = 0.4). The combination of quilting sutures and fibrin sealant directed at the 2 main mechanisms of seroma formation, (dead space and serous exudate, respectively) can decrease the duration of postoperative drain placement and does maintain low seroma rates.

Changing role of hyaluronidase in plastic surgery

Summary: Soft-tissue augmentation has become an increasingly popular option for facial rejuvenation. Hyaluronic acid fillers are part of the most rapidly expanding segment of this market, largely because of their safe drug profile and temporary nature. Despite their good safety profile, they can and do have complications ranging from superficial placement, uneven placement, granulomatous reactions, and skin necrosis. This article reviews the on- and off-label uses of hyaluronidase and presents several clinical algorithms detailing the effective and safe use of hyaluronidase to manage complications secondary to hyaluronic acid fillers.

The Dorsal Metacarpal Artery Perforator Flap: A Case Report Utilizing a Quaba Flap Harvested from a Previously Skin-Grafted Area for Dorsal 5th Digit Coverage

Burns to the hand are common in burn victims. These burns often leave complex wounds that require local flaps for coverage. Local flaps are often excluded because they lie within the zone of thermal injury. The purpose of this case report is to report the successful use of a Quaba flap harvested from a previously burned and skin-grafted area. The patients medical record including pre-operative, intra-operative, and post-operative photographs were reviewed and utilized as sources of data. The patient tolerated the procedure well and was able to return to his previous hand therapy regimen without adverse event and with an acceptable cosmetic result. The Quaba flap can be a safe and effective option for local hand coverage even in previously burned and skin-grafted areas.