Steven R. Gold

Daydreaming, Current Concerns and Personality

The study evaluated the impact of personality traits and current concerns as determinants of the content of daydreams. Subjects completed thirteen scales of the Personality Research Form, a current concern list, and kept a log of their daydreams for two weeks. Each daydream was rated on a semantic differential type scale. The relationship between daydreaming and personality was evaluated with canonical correlations and none were significant. The themes of the daydream were, however, related to the current concerns. A total of 65.4 percent of the daydreams reflected subjects current concerns. More than half of the daydreams focused on the five current concerns. In this study, current concerns were found to be consistent with the themes represented in subjects daydreams while personality traits were independent of the meaning attributed to the day dreams.

Two Studies of Females' Sexual Force Fantasies

Two studies were conducted to test the hypothesis that women with sexual fantasies involving force are interested in a more diverse range of sexual stimuli than women without force fantasies. In Experiment 1, 16 of 94 females (17%) had one fantasy with forced sexual activity. Those with force fantasies had more themes of group sex and sex with strangers; rated themselves as more frightened, guilty, and disgusted after the fantasy; rated the fantasy as one they could not act on; and read Playboy and watched XXX-Rated movies more than the no-force group. Experiment 2 replicated most findings of Experiment 1, and found that females with force fantasies were also significantly more erotophilic and sexually experienced. The hypothesis that females with force fantasies would be interested in a range of sexual stimuli and sexual activities was strongly supported and future research using experimental methods was suggested.

Gender Differences in First Sexual Fantasies

Gender differences were examined in self-reported first sexual fantasies. Subjects wrote two of the earliest fantasies they could recall and two current fantasies. Males reported having their first fantasies at an earlier age, wrote more explicit and shorter fantasies, and rated themselves as having more positive and fewer negative emotional responses to their first sexual fantasies. The event leading up to the first fantasy involved a relationship for females, whereas for males a visual cue was more often reported. First fantasies involved themes such as sex with movie stars or adults the subjects knew, such as teachers. The results were interpreted as reflecting different patterns of sex role socialization for males and females.

Relationship of Sex, Sex Guilt, and Experience to Written Sexual Fantasies

The influence of sex, sex guilt, and sexual experience on college students sexual fantasies was examined. Twenty-one males and forty-nine females handed in at least three written-out sexual fantasies which were rated on a fantasy checklist. Male fantasies were found to be more explicit, and mention group sex more often than female fantasies. Females mentioned themes of romance and commitment more often than males. Sexually experienced subjects tended to have more explicit fantasies than sexually less experienced subjects. The level of sex guilt did not discriminate among subjects. Subjects who defined themselves as nonreligious had more explicit and richer sexual fantasies.

A Review of Influences on Sexual Fantasy: Attitudes, Experience, Guilt, and Gender

The important role of sexual fantasy in human sexuality has received wide support in the past decade and a half. The initial interest in establishing fantasys normality has shifted to examining the functional aspects of fantasy and the variables that influence it. The following article reviews variables that affect sexual fantasies including the role of an individuals personality/sexual attitude, sexual experience, sex guilt, and gender. Also, a hypothesized link between parental sexual attitudes and their childrens fantasy production is explored. A variety of methods have been implemented to investigate fantasy and a number of these methods are critiqued and some possible methodological improvements are suggested. Finally, the similarity of findings across studies and methods seem to warrant expanding fantasy investigation to other areas and some future directions are suggested.

Imagery elaboration and clarity in modifying college students' depression

Examined the relationship between clarity of imagery and depression reduction and determined whether Ss who elaborated on positive fantasies were more successful in therapy than those Ss who merely practiced positive daydreams. Thirty depressed college females were pretested with the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), randomly assigned to one of three groups for a 3-week period, and then were posttested with the BDI. The groups were a no treatment control, a positive imagery group, and a positive imagery group who elaborated on their daydreams. Ss were asked to rate the clarity of imagery on a scale from 1 to 10. Analysis of covariance found no significant treatment effect, but vividness of imagery was correlated significantly with depression reduction.

Daydreaming: a measurable concept.

Research has been reported which supports the psychometric properties of the Imaginal Processes Inventory. The purpose was to confirm and extend this research as well as investigate the interrelationships between daydreaming and depression, locus of control, and visual imagery. This inventory (7 scales), Beck Depression Inventory, Rotter Locus of Control Scale (I-E), and Gordons Test of Visual Imagery Control were administered to 100 female undergraduates. A sample of 39 subjects were retested on the scales an average of 6.8 wk. after the first administration. Correlations with Imaginal Processes inventory and test-retest data were consistent with Giambras (1977) findings for males and support the reliability and generalizability of the scores. Other results include significant intercorrelations between the various scales of this inventory and the others. Implications for an understanding of the process of depression are discussed.

Daydreaming, Self Concept and Academic Performance

A continuous interaction model was proposed to explain the relationship among daydreaming, self concept and academic performance. Daydreams were hypothesized to both influence performance and attitudes and in turn be affected by performance outcomes and self concept. A second aim of the study was to evaluate the usefulness of a semantic differential scale as a method for subjects to rate their own daydreams. Subjects recorded school-related daydreams during two time periods in a semester, completed three self concept scales and took four psychology exams. Multiple regressions were used to analyze the proposed model. The second self concept score was predicted by the initial self concept score, daydream activity, and gender. The third self concept score was explained by the second self concept score and an exam score. The three summary dimensions of the semantic differential were independent and stable over seven weeks.

School Related Daydreams and Test Anxiety

Current models of test anxiety emphasize the mediating role of negative and disruptive internal cognitive activity. Highly test anxious students have been reported to engage in more negative thoughts and fewer positive thoughts during an actual exam. The present study examined the relationship between school related daydreams and level of test anxiety. It was hypothesized that daydream outcome and mood would be correlated with self reported test anxiety, grade point average and self reported arousal and self talk during an exam. Overall the grade point average was the measure most relevant to daydreams. Students with high grade point averages tended to have more happy and successful daydreams and fewer failure daydreams. Self talk during the exam was unrelated to daydream measures. Suggestions for further research were presented.

Individual Differences in IQ, Daydreaming and Moral Reasoning in Gifted and Average Adolescents:

Previous research found factorial independence between IQ and daydreaming in both gifted and average children and adolescents, supporting Hogans (1980) three-dimensional model of intelligence. The present study was designed to replicate and extend these findings to older adolescents. The second aim of this research was to relate the decline in guilt and fear of failure daydreams that has been found in studies of children, adolescents, and college students to the development of moral reasoning ability. A total of 98 gifted students and 104 average students in grades 9 through 12 completed a revised form of the Imaginal Processes Inventory and the Defining Issues Test. Measures of daydreaming style were again found to be independent of intelligence. The gifted group was also found to have fewer guilt and fear of failure daydreams and more positive-constructive daydreams than the average group. No relationship was found between moral judgment and guilt and fear of failure daydreaming.